Rise and fall of the tyrannical emperor Domitian

Domitian was born in Rome on October 24, AD 51. His father was the Roman general Vespasian, who would become emperor later in life, and his mother was Domitilla the Elder.

Domitian was the youngest of two sons. His oldest brother, called Titus, would also become emperor.

Domitian's father, Vespasian, was not from the previous imperial family, known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

However, he had risen to military prominence during the reign of Emperor Claudius (AD 41-54) when he served in the invasion of Britain. 

His success resulted in Vespasian becoming consul in AD 51, the same year in which Domitian was born.

During the reign of Claudius, Vespasian was able to advance in political life, while Titus became friends with Claudius' son Britannicus.

However, when Nero became emperor in AD 54, Vespasian fell out with the emperor's wife and had to retire from politics for over a decade.

During this time, Domitian's mother died before he had turned 16 years old.

Vespasian once more returned to political life when, in AD 63, he served as proconsul of Africa Proconsularis (modern Tunisia).

Then, in AD 66, Nero appointed Vespasian as the commander of the Roman army dispatched to put down the Judaean revolt.

Domitian's older brother, Titus, travelled with their father to the war, while Domitian remained in Rome.

While his brother and father were away at war in the east, and his mother had died years before, the teenage Domitian spent significant time without close family.

Instead, he was given an education in his uncle's house, but became somewhat of a recluse.

While ancient writers indicate that Domitian was intelligent, he seemed to have preferred isolation to the rising fame of his father and brother.

When emperor Nero died in June of AD 68, there was a period of turmoil and chaos known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

A series of military generals vied for power over the empire, which often resulted in bloodshed on the streets of Rome.

At this time, Vespasian was still on campaign in Judea, while Domitian was in Rome with his uncle Flavius Sabinus.

One of the military generals, Vitellius, defeated the other challengers for control of Rome and became emperor.

However, Vitellius saw Vespasian as a potential threat and placed Domitian under house arrest.

When Nero had died, Vespasian had sent Titus back to Rome to swear allegiance to the new emperor.

However, when Titus heard of the chaos unfolding in Italy, he returned to his father in Judaea.

At that point, Vespasian declared himself emperor. He left Titus in charge of the Judaean campaign and marched his own army back to Italy to seize control.

When Vespasian's armies finally arrived in Italy, ahead of Vespasian himself, they clashed with Vitellius' forces in battle.

Vitellius fled back to Rome and Domitian knew his life was in danger. Domitian fled from the city in disguise and met up with his father's soldiers, who then marched upon Rome. Vitellius was captured and killed. 

Vespasian returned to Rome in December of AD 69 and was proclaimed the new emperor.

After that, despite being given titles and accolades, Domitian was never expected to assume any real authority.

Instead, Domitian's older brother, Titus, became Vespasian's heir apparent. Neither Vespasian nor Titus seemed to trust Domitian with authority.

When Vespasian died in AD 79, Domitian's brother, Titus, became emperor as had been arranged.

Titus was a popular emperor and was well-liked by both the Senate and the people.

He was also considered to be a great military commander, having successfully concluded the campaign against the Jews in AD 71.

However, in AD 81, just over two years into his reign, Titus suddenly became ill and died.

At that time, Titus had been on a journey with Domitian, and both were away from Rome.

While Titus was still sick, Domitian had rushed back to the city, and it is rumoured that he declared himself emperor. Titus finally died in September of AD 81.

Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard and the Senate subsequently ratified this decision.

However, there were some who were opposed to this, including some members of the Senate and Titus' own generals.

Rumours quickly arose that Domitian had poisoned his brother.

During his reign, Domitian expanded the empire's borders and strengthened its economy.

Firstly, he revalued the Roman currency, increasing the silver content of the denarius from 90% to 98%.

Next, Domitian appointed Sextus Julius Frontinus as the curator of the water supply, under whom significant improvements were made to Rome's aqueducts.

He also built several new roads and public buildings, including the Odeon, used for musical performances, and the Stadium of Domitian, which is the current Piazza Navona.

Domitian turned out to be a capable administrator, and he did not neglect the well-being of the people.

Before he seized power, Rome required a lot of repairs since a large fire during the reign of Titus had destroyed large parts of the city.

Domitian rebuilt parts of the hills around the Forum, reinstalled a temple to Jupiter, and erected a new stadium.

For himself, he tore down the old imperial palace on the Palatine Hill, he constructed a new imperial house, known as the Flavian Palace. 

Domitian was a great admirer of the chariot races, and he even added two more factions, Golden and Purple.

He particularly enjoyed public entertainments of all kinds, including beast hunts and gladiatorial battles.

He had the Colosseum redesigned so that the floor of the structure could be flooded to host mock naval battles.

Domitian also saw successful military campaigns. By expanding the empire's borders, Domitian increased Rome's security and made it less likely that they would be attacked.

In AD 83, his forces fought against the Chatti and were able to subdue them. 

Also, the Dacians had been causing trouble for Rome off and on since the time of Augustus.

In AD 89, Domitian's troops defeated the Dacians and pushed them back, leading to a peace treaty after the Battle of Tapae.

To further increase security, Domitian built several forts along the empire's borders.

He stationed troops in strategic locations throughout the empire. By doing this, he made it more difficult for invaders to enter Rome.

As a result, Domitian celebrated a triumph on the Alban Mount in AD 89 to commemorate his military victories over both the Chatti and Dacians.

Domitian won the respect and admiration of his soldiers when, for the first time in imperial history, he gave them an increase in their wages.

Despite his many achievements, Domitian was a controversial ruler. He was known for his harshness, love of luxury, and scandalous behavior.

Much of what we know about the emperor is based upon prominent Roman historians like Pliny the Younger and Tacitus, who were contemporaries of Domitian. 

According to them, during his reign, Domitian was often paranoid and suspicious of those around him.

A number of ancient writers make comment on his odd behaviours, and they used these descriptions to explain why he became much more ruthless later on in his rule.

In one story, Domitian is said to have enjoyed sitting alone in his room, killing flies with his writing pen.

The Ancient Roman historian, Cassius Dio, tells another story when, in AD 89, Domitian held a dinner party and invited a number of senators to attend.

When they arrived, they found that the dining room had been decorated in a funeral theme.

All the furniture was draped in black, and the servants were dressed in the same colour.

Each guest was given a tombstone with their name carved on it, and the emperor spoke of nothing but death all night.

Many attendees feared that they would be killed by the end of the night. However, they all eventually left for their homes without harm.

Such cruel and strange stories about the flies and the dinner party were meant to explain why Domitian had many Romans killed or exiled during his time in power, including some who were very close to him.

Domitian also seemed to enjoy the power and prestige he gained as emperor. 

He clearly regarded himself as a supreme ruler and took pleasure in being called "master and god": dominus et deus.

He also renamed two of the months after himself: Germanicus (September) and Domitianus (October).

The Senate also complained that it was stripped of its power as Domitian preferred to make decisions independent of their advice.

The senators, who had been used to being a respected political body during the rules of Vespasian and Titus, did not like this.

As a result, they often complained loudly to the emperor about his disrespectful treatment.

However, their complaints only made the emperor worried that they were planning to get rid of him.

His paranoia resulted in the execution of several senators and imperial officials for the most minor of crimes.

Domitian had Sullustius Lucullus, governor of Britannia, killed for renaming a new kind of cavalry spear after himself, and he recalled Agricola, a successful British general who had become too popular.

Agricola's recall came after his victory at the Battle of Mons Graupius in AD 83, which significantly expanded Roman control in Britain.

Domitian may have hoped that by being excessively harsh to minor offenders, that people who may have thought about overthrowing him would be too afraid to follow through on their plans.

However, it appears to have the opposite effect. The harsher he became, the more dangerous Domitian appeared to be as emperor, and the senators were more willing to entertain the thought of finding an alternative ruler.

The tensions between the Senate and the emperor increased and Domitian ordered that the marble walls of his new palace to be polished to an incredibly high degree.

It was hoped that they would be a reflective as mirrors so that Domitian would always know if someone was sneaking up from behind him.

Domitian's reign came to an end in AD 96 when he was assassinated by members of the Senate.

The assassination plot against Domitian included key conspirators such as the Praetorian prefects Norbanus and Petronius Secundus, as well as the freedman Parthenius.

When planning how to kill the emperor, the conspirators were approached by a member of the imperial household staff, called Stephanus.

Stephanus had been faking an arm injury for a few days so that he could smuggle a knife into the palace.

On the 18th of September AD 96, Stephanus and other members of the conspiracy entered Domitian's bedroom and stabbed him to death.

He was 44 years old. After Domitian's death, the Senate tried to erase all traces of his reign.

His name was removed from inscriptions, his coins were melted down, and his statues were destroyed in a process known as damnatio memoriae.

The death of Domitian marked the end of the Flavian dynasty. Despite his controversial reign, Domitian left a lasting legacy.

He is remembered as one of Rome's most impressive builders and as a competent and effective ruler.

However, his tyrannical behavior has also led to him being remembered as one of Rome's most cruel and ruthless emperors.