The Cannibalism Hymn of Pharaoh Unas: Ancient Egypt's most disturbing inscription

Pharaoh Unas ruled over ancient Egypt during the Fifth Dynasty, from 2375 to 2345 BCE, a time when the Old Kingdom's power was still strong, and the construction of pyramids was at its peak.

Unas's own pyramid at Saqqara was the first pyramid to feature inscriptions on its interior walls, known as the Pyramid Texts.

Under Unas's reign, Egypt was gradually losing its stability and prosperity after the golden age of the great pyramid builders like Khafre.

The country's economy, while still relatively robust, began to struggle with fluctuating income from agriculture, trade, and mining operations.

In light of these challenges, Unas chose to continue the construction of monumental architecture and the support of a complex bureaucracy and priesthoods.

In addition to his aforementioned pyramid, Unas also initiated various other building projects, including temples and chapels.

Eventually rediscovered in 1881 by Gaston Maspero, the Pyramid Texts remain some of the oldest religious writings in the world.

As scholars began translating into their content, it became clear that the writings revealed a number of significant insights into the earliest beliefs and practices of the ancient Egyptians.

These texts consist mainly of spells, prayers, and incantations. But central to all of the inscriptions was what the idea that the afterlife was a journey that required careful preparation.

The Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibalism Text, were part of this corpus of funerary literature, designed to ensure the deceased's successful transition to the afterlife. 

Unas's inscription in his pyramid at Saqqara, carved sometime around 2345 BCE, depicts Unas as a powerful and fearsome ruler, even in the afterlife.

It describes how Unas hunts and devours the gods, absorbing their powers and becoming invincible.

The text declares, "Unas is he who eats their magic and swallows their spirits; their big ones are for his morning meal, their middle-sized ones for his evening meal, their little ones for his night meal."

The hieroglyphs go on to state, "Unas is the bull of heaven, who rages in his heart, who lives on the being of every god, who eats their entrails."

In the context of ancient Egyptian beliefs, the consumption of gods' bodies by the pharaoh was seen as a means of acquiring their strength and ensuring eternal life.

This practice may have been part of the larger religious framework that emphasized the cyclical nature of life, death, and rebirth. 

Furthermore, the hymn portrays Unas as a cosmic entity, specifically emphasizing his association with the sun god Ra.

It suggests that Unas ascends to the heavens, where he commands respect from the gods and exercises control over the celestial bodies.

The text states, "Unas takes the arm of the imperishable stars...Unas is the bull of the sky, who shatters at will, who lives on the being of every god." 

Ultimately, the Cannibalism Hymn may serve as a dire warning to Unas's enemies, both mortal and divine.

It implies that those who oppose him will face his wrath and be consumed. The text warns, "Unas will judge with Him whose name is hidden on the day of slaying the firstborn."

As a result, this aspect of the hymn reinforces the pharaoh's supreme authority and the importance of maintaining order and loyalty in ancient Egyptian society.

The interpretations of the Cannibalism Text have varied widely among scholars.

One prominent interpretation views the text as symbolic, arguing that the consumption of gods represents the pharaoh's assimilation of divine attributes.

Championed by Egyptologist like Erik Hornung, it suggests that the act of eating the gods is a metaphor for the pharaoh's acquisition of their powers, essential for his rebirth in the afterlife.

This interpretation aligns with the broader Egyptian belief in the transformative power of rituals, where symbolic acts could have tangible effects in the spiritual realm.

However, a small minority of other scholars propose a more literal reading of the text.

They argue that the depiction of cannibalism might reflect actual ritual practices, albeit limited to the royal and divine spheres.

Jan Assmann, a renowned Egyptologist, points out that the text could be indicative of a ritualistic cannibalism, practiced as part of the funerary rites to ensure the pharaoh's transformation and ascension to the divine realm.

This interpretation is supported by the fact that the Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibalism Text, were intended for a royal audience, suggesting that the practices described were exclusive to the pharaoh and his immediate circle.

Regardless of their original intended meaning, these texts were designed exclusive to the pharaohs and their royal tombs.

It is important to remember that the pharaoh was not only a political leader but also a religious figure, believed to possess a semi-divine nature.

The rituals and spells contained in the texts were meant to ensure the pharaoh's successful transition to the afterlife, rather than being read by the wider population.

However, they did seem to have a social impact in Ancient Egypt.

Later Egyptian funerary literature, particularly in the Middle and New Kingdoms, show a clear influence from the Pyramid Texts. 

The later burial literature, called the Coffin Texts and the Book of the Dead, include many of the same concepts and spells originally reserved for the royalty.

It indicates a shift in religious beliefs and practices over time, with growing popularity of older texts among the middle classes.

However, the cannibalism elements do not show up in the same graphic way that Unas used.

This may show that even the Egyptians were uncomfortable with these concepts, just as we are.