Marcus Tullius Cicero: the Roman who spoke passionately against tyrants and was killed for it

Marcus Tullius Cicero was born in 106 BCE in Arpinum, a hill town about 100 kilometers southeast of Rome.

Although his family was part of the Roman equestrian order, it was not politically prominent—a fact that would later become a significant obstacle in Cicero's quest for a political career in a society that highly valued ancestral achievements.

Regardless of these challenges, Cicero's humble beginnings became the backdrop of a journey that saw him ascend to Rome's political pinnacle.

Young Cicero was provided an excellent education in a variety of subjects such as law, literature, philosophy, and rhetoric.

His early education in Rome was overseen by a diverse array of tutors in Greek and Latin literature and philosophy.

One of the influential figures during his formative years was the Greek poet Archias, who arrived in Rome when Cicero was about ten years old.

Under Archias's tutelage, Cicero began to develop his immense literary talent, honing skills that would serve him well throughout his life.

Around 88 BCE, Cicero served in the military under Pompey Strabo (father of Pompey the Great) during the Social War, although he showed little interest in military affairs or glory.

Instead, his passion lay in the arena of intellectual pursuits and law, an area that provided ample opportunity for him to flex his rhetorical skills.

His studies took him to Athens, a critical center of learning in the Hellenistic world, where he continued his education in philosophy and oratory.

There, he was deeply influenced by the philosophies of Plato and the Stoics, which greatly shaped his own philosophical thinking.

The works of Isocrates, Demosthenes, and other great Athenian rhetoricians also had a profound effect on Cicero, guiding the development of his distinctive oratorical style.

Upon returning to Rome, Cicero embarked on his legal and political career, equipped with an exceptional education that set him apart.

Cicero began his political career as a 'novus homo' or 'new man'—an individual who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate.

In the face of the hurdles presented by his non-aristocratic background, his ambition, skill, and intellect propelled him towards political success.

His first significant legal case, the defense of Sextus Roscius against a charge of parricide in 80 BCE, was a turning point for Cicero.

His victory in this high-profile case not only established him as a first-rate advocate but also highlighted his dedication to justice—a quality that would become a hallmark of his political career.

Following the traditional path of Roman politics, known as the 'cursus honorum,' Cicero ascended through the political ranks.

He served as a quaestor in Sicily in 75 BCE, aedile in 69 BCE, and praetor in 66 BCE. Each of these roles honed his administrative and political skills, preparing him for the challenges that awaited him.

In 63 BCE, Cicero reached the pinnacle of his political career when he was elected consul—the highest office in the Roman Republic.

His election was a monumental achievement for a 'new man,' especially in an increasingly turbulent political landscape.

His term as consul was marked by the infamous Catiline Conspiracy, where he thwarted a plot to overthrow the Roman government.

Cicero's successful exposure and handling of this crisis cemented his reputation as a staunch defender of the Republic.

Cicero's oratory prowess remains legendary, a skill that distinguished him among his contemporaries and shaped much of his political career.

This section aims to delve deeper into the fascinating sphere of Cicero as an orator, highlighting his unique style and the notable speeches that left an enduring mark on public rhetoric.

Cicero’s rhetorical style was marked by his thorough knowledge of philosophy and law, his mastery of emotion and logic, and his powerful use of Latin language.

He was capable of generating a compelling narrative and appealing to the emotions of his audience while keeping a firm grasp on logical arguments.

Cicero's speeches often demonstrated a perfect blend of 'ethos', 'pathos', and 'logos'—establishing credibility, stirring emotions, and employing logical reasoning, respectively.

One of his most acclaimed speeches, the 'First Oration Against Catiline,' was delivered when he was consul in 63 BCE.

In this speech, Cicero presented evidence of a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) to overthrow the Roman government.

His powerful words not only persuaded the Senate to take action against the conspirators but also solidified his position as one of Rome's finest orators.

His 'Philippics,' a series of speeches directed against Mark Antony in 44 and 43 BCE, showcased Cicero's remarkable ability to navigate complex political landscapes through the power of speech.

These speeches, so named in reference to Demosthenes' speeches against Philip II of Macedon, demonstrated Cicero's capacity to mobilize public opinion even in the face of grave danger.

One of the most significant chapters in Cicero's life was his period of exile and subsequent return to Rome—a period that starkly demonstrated both his political fallibility and his resilience.

The path that led to his exile, as well as the impact of his return, provides important insights into his life and the larger political landscape of the late Roman Republic.

Cicero's exile began in 58 BCE as a consequence of his actions during his consulship five years earlier.

During the Catiline Conspiracy, he had ordered the execution of five conspirators without trial, invoking the 'Senatus Consultum Ultimum,' a decree that effectively declared a state of emergency.

While his decision was initially celebrated, it later became a source of controversy as it was perceived to be in violation of the Roman legal principle of 'provocatio'—the right of a Roman citizen to appeal a magistrate's decision.

In 58 BCE, Publius Clodius Pulcher, a political enemy of Cicero, was elected as Tribune of the Plebs.

Clodius introduced a law retrospectively stating that anyone who had put Roman citizens to death without trial had committed a capital offense.

Although Cicero was not directly named, it was clear that the legislation aimed at him.

Fearing for his safety, Cicero chose to leave Rome and was subsequently exiled.

Cicero's exile was a period of personal hardship. His property was seized, his house on the Palatine Hill was destroyed, and he was forbidden to come within 400 miles of Italy.

The once prominent figure was rendered powerless, distanced from the political life he loved.

His correspondences during this period reveal his despair and sense of loss.

However, Cicero's political fortunes changed in 57 BCE, largely thanks to the tireless efforts of his supporters, especially his loyal friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and the sympathetic consul, Titus Annius Milo.

They managed to pass a decree in the Senate for his return, and with the political landscape in Rome changing, Cicero was welcomed back as a hero by the public.

Cicero's exile and return marked a crucial turning point in his life and career. It demonstrated his ability to navigate the tides of public opinion, and his resilience in overcoming setbacks.

Despite the tarnishing of his reputation and the destruction of his property, Cicero returned to Rome and resumed his political and intellectual activities, reaffirming his significance in the turbulent times of the late Roman Republic.

Beyond his political acumen and oratory prowess, Cicero was also a man deeply engrossed in the world of philosophy.

His philosophical beliefs were largely influenced by the teachings of the Greeks but were uniquely expressed through his Roman perspective.

His works integrated the thoughts of several Greek philosophical schools, including Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Academic Skepticism.

Although not a systematic philosopher, Cicero had a talent for adapting complex philosophical thoughts to a Roman audience, making philosophy more approachable and practical.

His philosophical writings, typically in the form of dialogues, aimed at providing moral and ethical guidance.

He considered philosophy as a path towards achieving a good life—a life of virtue.

One of his most renowned philosophical works, 'De Officiis' (On Duties), explores the concept of duty and morality.

It remains one of the most influential treatises on ethics in the Western tradition, even informing Christian moral thought.

In this work, Cicero proposes that one's duty is derived from four sources: fact and nature, society's demands, one's personal character and inclinations, and one's commitments and relationships.

In 'De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum' (On the Ends of Good and Evil), Cicero investigates the various conceptions of the highest good and ultimate evil, engaging with the ideas of Epicureanism, Stoicism, and the philosophy of Antiochus of Ascalon.

His 'Tusculanae Disputationes' (Tusculan Disputations) takes a deep dive into issues of human misery and the potential for human happiness, discussing topics such as death, pain, and virtue.

Cicero's philosophical work 'De Republica' explores political philosophy, including the best form of government, the citizen's role, and the concept of natural law—a law inherent in nature, discoverable through reason.

His belief in natural law would prove profoundly influential in later thoughts about law and rights.

Cicero's philosophical works encapsulated his dedication to the pursuit of wisdom and his profound belief in the power of reason.

His ability to synthesize complex ideas from different philosophical schools and present them in a more accessible manner allowed philosophy to reach a wider audience in Rome. 

The final decades of the Roman Republic were marked by political upheaval, escalating tensions, and a series of power struggles that eventually led to its downfall.

In the midst of this turmoil, Cicero emerged as a significant figure, his actions and ideologies deeply intertwined with the fate of the Republic.

Following his successful term as consul and the exposure of the Catiline conspiracy, Cicero found himself increasingly at odds with the power dynamics of Rome.

He fervently defended the principles of the Republic against the rising tide of autocracy, a stance that often put him in conflict with the era's powerful figures.

His opposition to the First Triumvirate, particularly his strained relations with Julius Caesar, marked a significant period in his political career and the history of the Republic.

After Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, Cicero saw an opportunity to restore the Republic.

He vehemently opposed Mark Antony, who he saw as a threat to the Republic's restoration. His speeches, known as the 'Philippics,' rallied Senators against Antony and were instrumental in fueling political sentiment against him.

Despite Cicero's efforts, the Republic could not be saved. The formation of the Second Triumvirate, comprised of Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus), and Lepidus, marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of autocratic rule.

As one of the proscribed enemies of the state during the Triumvirate's rule, Cicero was targeted.

Despite attempts to flee, Cicero was captured and killed in December of 43 BCE.

His hands, along with his head—symbols of his powerful speech and writing—were publicly displayed in the Roman Forum, a grim testament to the violent politics of the era.

However, the brutality of his death did not erase the mark he had left on Roman society and the larger annals of history.

Cicero's legacy is manifold. As a politician, he is remembered as a staunch defender of the Roman Republic and its values.

His efforts against the Catiline Conspiracy and his opposition to the Triumvirates underscore his dedication to the rule of law and the preservation of the Republic.

As an orator, Cicero set the gold standard for public rhetoric, wielding his eloquence and persuasive power to sway the Senate and the public.

His speeches remain iconic examples of public oratory and continue to be studied for their rhetorical brilliance.

As a philosopher, his contributions to ethical, political, and rhetorical theory have had a lasting impact on Western philosophical thought.

His works, especially 'De Officiis,' have informed moral and ethical discourse for centuries.

His concept of natural law influenced later thoughts about law and rights, significantly contributing to the development of legal philosophy.

In the realm of literature, his vast corpus of letters provides an invaluable first-hand account of the political and social dynamics of his time, while his rhetorical and philosophical texts bear testament to his intellectual prowess.

Beyond the realm of literature and philosophy, Cicero's political ideals have greatly shaped Western political thought.

His staunch belief in representative government and the rule of law influenced the development of republican ideas.

His concept of natural law formed the bedrock for later political and legal theories, particularly influencing the Enlightenment thinkers and the framers of the U.S. Constitution.

Cicero's life and works, therefore, have had an enduring impact on Latin literature and Western civilization.

His mastery of Latin language and prose, his synthesis of Greek philosophy, his contribution to political thought, and his ideas about ethical conduct collectively represent a rich legacy that continues to shape our cultural, intellectual, and societal landscapes.