The contentious church council of Chalcedon

When a new church council was called at Chalcedon, a city near Constantinople, held in 451 AD, critical theological disputes threatened the unity of the church.

It was hoped that this council would resolve the heated debates about the true nature of Jesus Christ. The meeting brought together bishops from across the Roman Empire, but there seemed to be no end to the arguments between the members.

Only after much difficulty was the Chalcedonian Definition crafted, but it did not have the desired unifying effect. 

In the early 5th century, the Christian Church faced significant theological with the Nestorians, a sect that emphasized the distinctness of Christ's human and divine natures.

Nestorius was the Patriarch of Constantinople and argued that Mary should be called Christotokos, meaning "Bearer of Christ," instead of the traditional Theotokos, "Bearer of God."

Initially, to address this proposal, the Council of Ephesus was convened in AD 431. At the end of it, the attendees officially condemned Nestorius and affirmed the Virgin Mary as Theotokos.

At its core, it emphasized the importance of Christ as god. However, this decision only increased tensions between the different factions in the Church and led to further disputes. 

In the years following the Council of Ephesus, another theological challenge was raised by a group called the Monophysites.

People sought to understand the previous stress on Jesus’ divinity and began to consider it to be of more importance than his human nature.

As a result, the leaders of the Monophysite sect, like Eutyches, argued that Christ had a single, divine nature after the incarnation, and no human nature.

This view clashed sharply with the Dyophysite position, which maintained that Christ indeed had two distinct natures: one divine and one human.

Again, in an attempt to solve this new dispute, the Byzantine Emperor Marcian and Empress Pulcheria called for a new council. This would become the Council of Chalcedon. 

The Council of Chalcedon officially began on October 8, AD 451 and was attended by over 500 bishops from across the Roman Empire who represented various regions and theological perspectives.

One of the most powerful Church leaders who chose not to attend was Pope Leo I, also known as Leo the Great.

However, he did send his own legates who were to represent him and his thoughts on the matters discussed.  

The initial sessions focused on the validity of the earlier councils, particularly the Council of Ephesus in AD 449, which had been controversial.

To establish a firm foundation, the bishops read aloud the canons and creeds of previous councils, reaffirming their commitment to orthodoxy.

During these readings, tensions arose as opposing factions defended their theological positions vigorously. The sessions quickly descended into heated debates about the exact relationship between Christ's divine and human natures.

A significant part of the council's proceedings involved the examination of Eutyches, the key advocate of Monophysitism. 

To counter Eutyches’ teachings, the legates of Pope Leo I presented a detailed letter from the pontiff. In what is now called the Tome of Leo, the legates read out a carefully articulated defense of traditional Dyophysite Christology.

This clearly asserted that Christ had two natures, one human and one divine. This document would then become the main focal point of debate.

The bishops analyzed its implications and compared it to earlier creeds. 

Also, taking advantage of a rare meeting of so many church leaders, the council addressed issues regarding church administration and discipline.

Various canons were established to regulate ecclesiastical order and clerical conduct. For example, Canon 28, which sought to elevate the status of the See of Constantinople, sparked controversy.

Pope Leo I vehemently opposed this canon, seeing it as a challenge to Rome's primacy. As a result, this administrative decision further strained relationships within the church hierarchy. 

As the council drew to a close, the Chalcedonian Definition was crafted to address the Christological controversy. This definition declared that Christ is "one and the same Son, perfect in divinity and humanity, truly God and truly man," existing in two natures without confusion, change, division, or separation.

By adopting this definition, the council sought to create a workable theological compromise.  

However, this compromise failed to satisfy all parties, leading to further divisions within the church. Many in the Eastern churches found it unacceptable.

The immediate aftermath of the council saw the rise of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. These churches, particularly in Egypt and Syria, rejected the Chalcedonian Definition and continued to adhere to Monophysitism.

As a result, they separated from the broader Christian community, creating distinct religious identities. Over time, these divisions hardened, leading to the establishment of separate ecclesiastical structures. 

In the centuries following the council, the divide between Eastern and Western Christianity widened. The tension over ecclesiastical primacy, particularly regarding the status of the See of Constantinople, continued to grow.

With each side asserting its authority, the church experienced increasing internal conflict. This power struggle contributed to the eventual Great Schism of 1054, which permanently divided Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christianity.  

Theologically, the Chalcedonian Definition became a foundational element of orthodox Christian belief. By asserting the dual nature of Christ, it provided a framework that influenced subsequent theological developments.

This definition was adopted by the majority of Christian denominations and became a cornerstone of their Christological doctrines.

Over time, this theological stance helped shape the creeds and confessions of faith used in various Christian traditions.