How Egypt became the greatest superpower of the ancient world

One of the most significant factors that contributed to Egypt's transformation into an ancient superpower was its geographical advantage.

Nestled in the northeastern corner of Africa, Egypt was blessed with the Nile River, the longest river in the world.

This became the lifeline of this civilization, as the Nile's predictable annual flooding deposited rich, fertile silt along its banks.

It resulted in an environment conducive for agriculture, allowing the early Egyptians to cultivate crops such as wheat and barley: providing a stable food supply that enabled the growth of large, settled communities.

In addition, the Nile was a vital transportation and communication route. Constant river travel facilitated trade and interaction between different communities along its banks.

This helped in the exchange of ideas, goods, and resources.

The river's natural abundance of fish and waterfowl, along with the availability of papyrus reeds used for making paper, further contributed to Egypt's remarkable economic growth.

Aside from the Nile, Egypt's strategic location at the crossroads of Africa and Asia meant that it was a bridge between different worlds, making it a hub for trade and cultural exchange.

The deserts flanking the Nile Valley, while harsh and inhospitable, acted as natural barriers.

As such, it provided a level of easy protection against foreign invasions. Finally, the Mediterranean Sea to the north offered opportunities for maritime trade, opening Egypt to the wider world.

The political structure and administration of ancient Egypt were one of the key elements in its transformation into a superpower.

At the apex of this structure was the Pharaoh, a divine ruler who held absolute power.

The first pharaoh is traditionally thought to be named Narmer, who unified Upper and Lower Egypt in around 3100 BCE.

He quickly built a centralized state which focused all power on himself and those who followed him copied this example. Djer, Den and Qa'a were also early rulers who contributed to administrative practices and state formation.

As a result, the Pharaoh was the supreme political, military, and religious leader. 

This concept of divine kingship claimed that the Pharaoh was regarded as a unique intermediary between the gods and people, or even seen as god himself on earth.

Therefore, it was believed that he helped to maintain social order and stability throughout the kingdom.

As a consequence, the Pharaoh's authority was considered unquestionable and absolute.

Beneath the Pharaoh was a highly organized bureaucracy that administered the state's affairs.

It was divided into various departments for agriculture, treasury, public works, and justice, among others.

These departments were headed by officials, often high-ranking nobles or priests, who reported directly to the Pharaoh.

This centralized system of administration allowed for efficient resource management.

The political structure was reinforced by a well-defined legal system. It covered a wide range of issues: from property rights and trade regulations to criminal offenses and family matters.

It was overseen in the provinces, or nomes, of Egypt by nomarchs.

These individuals often passed their power on from father to son, or could be personally appointed by the Pharaoh.

They were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, and overseeing public works in their respective regions.

This system of provincial administration aimed to ensure that the Pharaoh's authority was effectively exercised across the vast territory of Egypt.

Ultimately, the economic prosperity of ancient Egypt was a cornerstone of its rise to power.

Surplus agricultural produce was stored in state granaries for use during years of poor harvest.

Taxes were collected from the Egyptian people in the form of grain, livestock, or labor, and used to fund public works, such as the building of pyramids and temples.

The Great Pyramid of Giza was built by Pharoah Khufu around 2560 BCE, symbolizing Egypt's power and advanced engineering. 

These projects also stimulated the economy by providing employment and promoting various industries like stone quarrying, woodworking, and metalworking.

At its height during the New Kingdom, Egypt’s population is estimated to have been between 3 to 5 million people, which allowed it to sustain large armies and complete grand construction projects.

Also, Egypt established extensive trade networks reaching as far as Punt, Byblos, and Mesopotamia, exchanging goods like gold, papyrus, and linen for luxury items such as spices, incense, ivory, and lapis lazuli.

One of the most powerful influences in ancient Egyptian dominance was its army.

Under the command of the Pharaoh, it was a formidable force that both defended the kingdom from external threats and drove its expansion.

The Egyptian military was particularly well-organized and structured. It was mainly divided into infantry, chariotry, and archery units.

The infantry, which was the backbone of the army throughout Egypt's history, was composed of foot soldiers armed with spears, axes, and shields.

Later, in the New Kingdom period, chariots became a key component of the Egyptian military machine, as they provided mobility and striking power on the battlefield.

Finally, the archers, armed with bows and arrows, offered ranged support.

In particular, the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom period (c. 1550–1070 BCE) expanded the military when they established a standing army, which was maintained even in peacetime.

This semi-professional force then allowed Egypt to conduct military campaigns to continually expand its borders.

Most often, this meant extending its influence over Canaan and parts of the Levant.

Additionally, Nubia, which was located to the south of Egypt, was frequently targeted by Egyptian military campaigns, since it was a rare source of gold, ivory, and slaves.

There were a number of major battles that played a pivotal role in Egypt's military history.

The most well-known are the Battle of Megiddo around 1458 BCE and the Battle of Kadesh in c1474 BCE, which was fought against the Hittites. 

After major conquests, the military was placed in charge of maintaining internal stability. It helped suppress rebellions and maintain law and order.

Strangely enough, when not at war, the army was also involved in non-military activities such as quarrying, construction, and transportation of goods.

The fall of this ancient superpower was a gradual process, slowly caused by a combination of internal struggles and external threats.

The New Kingdom is often considered the height of Egypt's power and prosperity, but after the death of Ramsses XI in 1070 BCE, Egypt began to decline. 

This led to a time known as the Third Intermediate Period. 

Without strong leadership, the central authority of the Pharaoh weakened and the country fragmented into smaller units ruled by local leaders. 

The gradual decentralization of power led to a decline in economic prosperity and a weakening of the military.

Also, the rise of new powers in the region that conquered Egypt, such as the Assyrians in 671 BCE and Persians in 525 BCE, brought an end to Egypt's autonomy.

The final blow came with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.

This would be the true end of native Egyptian rule.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty, established by one of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy, ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries following Alexander's death.

The last of the Ptolemaic rulers, Cleopatra VII, tried to revive Egypt's fortunes through alliances with Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

Her primary focus was on maintaining Egypt's independence in the face of aggressive Roman expansion.

However, following her defeat and death in 30 BCE, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.