The astounding role of Islamic scholars in saving the ancient world’s greatest knowledge

The Qur'an holds a central place in Islam, both as a religious text and as a guide to the importance of knowledge and inquiry.

In fact, Islam places a high value on learning, with the pursuit of knowledge seen as an essential duty for believers.

The concept of ilm, meaning knowledge, is emphasized in the Qur'an, which encourages followers to reflect on the world, seek wisdom, and understand the signs of God in the universe.

This religious motivation fueled the Islamic interest in science, philosophy, and literature.

Scholars viewed the acquisition of knowledge as a way to better comprehend the divine creation and fulfill their religious obligations.

This belief inspired Islamic societies to preserve and study texts from various traditions, as knowledge was seen as a universal gift that could enhance understanding of both the natural world and spiritual truths.  

As a result, Muslim scholars preserved texts from non-Islamic cultures for several reasons, all of which aligned with their philosophical and intellectual goals.

They believed that valuable insights could be gained from the writings of earlier civilizations, regardless of their origin.

Texts from Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian thinkers provided information on topics such as mathematics, medicine, and astronomy, which had practical and theoretical applications in Islamic society.

Islamic scholars did not view knowledge as belonging exclusively to one culture; instead, they recognized the diversity of intellectual contributions from across the world.

This inclusive approach led to the translation of works by Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Ptolemy, among others, into Arabic.

These texts were studied, expanded upon, and integrated into Islamic thought. 

One of the most important locations for this process was the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which was built during the 8th and 9th centuries.

Located in the heart of the Abbasid Caliphate, it brought together scholars from different regions and backgrounds, creating a space for intellectual exchange.

The House of Wisdom played a key role in the translation and preservation of ancient texts, especially from Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian sources.

The caliphs who supported this institution understood the value of knowledge from previous civilizations and wanted to ensure that these works were available to scholars across the Islamic world. 

Greek texts were among the most widely translated at the House of Wisdom. Scholars like Al-Kindi, who is often called the 'Father of Arab Philosophy', took great interest in Aristotle and Plato, translating their works into Arabic.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, another influential scholar, focused on medical and scientific texts, translating Galen’s medical treatises, which greatly impacted Islamic medicine.

In addition, Al-Farabi interpreted Greek philosophy and integrated it into Islamic thought. 

The House of Wisdom also gathered knowledge from Persian and Indian sources, which contributed significant works on astronomy and mathematics from earlier empires like the Sassanids.

Indian contributions were equally valuable, especially in the fields of mathematics and medicine.

The introduction of the Indian numeral system, which evolved into the Arabic numeral system, forever changed the way mathematical calculations were performed. 

Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina, made significant contributions to both philosophy and medicine.

His works, especially The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, reflected his deep understanding of Greek philosophy and science.

Avicenna studied the ideas of Aristotle and integrated them into his own writings, creating a system of thought that influenced both Islamic and European scholars for centuries.

Averroes, or Ibn Rushd, focused on Aristotle's writings, offering detailed commentaries that helped preserve and clarify the Greek philosopher's complex ideas.

In contrast, Al-Ghazali approached philosophy from a more religious perspective.

His critiques of philosophers like Avicenna and Al-Farabi sparked important debates within the Islamic world about the balance between reason and faith. 

In mathematics and astronomy, scholars like Al-Khwarizmi, whose works on algebra revolutionized the field, drew heavily on the mathematical traditions of Greece and India.

His book, The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, introduced the systematic study of equations and became a foundational text in both the Islamic and Western worlds.

Islamic mathematicians also preserved and expanded on the work of ancient astronomers, such as Ptolemy.

Observatories in cities like Baghdad and Damascus became centers for the study of the heavens, where scholars refined ancient astronomical tables and created new instruments.

Figures like Al-Battani and Ibn al-Haytham continued this tradition by advancing the study of optics and celestial movements. 

Many ancient texts were almost destroyed during the times of war and conquest.

One of the most devastating events was the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.

Baghdad saw its libraries and manuscripts destroyed in a brutal attack. The Mongols, under Hulagu Khan, captured the city and demolished many cultural institutions, including throwing countless volumes into the Tigris River.

It is said that the waters ran black with ink from the destroyed manuscripts. This loss was a major blow to the Islamic intellectual world, as many irreplaceable works of science, philosophy, and literature were wiped out in a single moment of destruction. 

Despite the catastrophic losses, efforts to rebuild and salvage knowledge continued in the aftermath of such events.

Scholars who survived the devastation worked to restore what they could, often relying on copies of manuscripts that had been preserved in other cities or regions.

Some manuscripts were rescued by fleeing scholars who carried them to places like Damascus, Cairo, or Cordoba.

These surviving centers of learning became vital for the continued preservation of knowledge.

Although the destruction of Baghdad's libraries triggered a dark period in the history of intellectual progress, the resilience of scholars ensured that ancient texts were not entirely lost. 

In particular, the creation of libraries in cities like Cordoba, Baghdad, and Cairo, housed vast collections of manuscripts and became central in the preservation of knowledge.

Specifically, the library of Cordoba, which had been established during the rule of the Umayyads, boasted hundreds of thousands of volumes, making it one of the most extensive collections in either the medieval Europe or the Islamic world.

Scholars from across the region visited the library to study and share their own writings.

Cairo, too, had its share of libraries, with the Fatimid caliphs establishing large collections of manuscripts that helped fuel scholarly discourse across the Islamic world. 

Thanks to these libraries, the culture of manuscript preservation was both deliberate and highly organized.

But this process required great attention to detail, as manuscripts were carefully copied by hand, often embellished with beautiful calligraphy.

Translators played a key role, especially in cities like Toledo and Baghdad, where they converted works from Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic.

The importance of accuracy in these translations led to the development of specialized methods for verifying the integrity of texts.

Libraries also maintained detailed catalogues, which helped scholars locate specific works and ensured the continued use and study of ancient texts.

This tradition of manuscript copying and translation kept classical knowledge alive during periods when it might otherwise have been lost. 

The reintroduction of ancient texts into Europe occurred primarily through Spain (Al-Andalus) and Sicily, regions where Islamic rule had facilitated the collection and translation of Greek and Roman works.

In places like Toledo, translators worked tirelessly to render Arabic texts into Latin, which made them accessible to European scholars.

This flow of knowledge included philosophical, scientific, and mathematical works from those mentioned earlier by Aristotle, Galen, and Ptolemy.

These Islamic translations brought classical ideas back into European intellectual circles and sparked a renewed interest in ancient philosophy and science.

It was this intellectual exchange that became one of the most important causes of Europe’s eventual cultural revival in the Renaissance. 

Once these classical works reached Europe, they were eagerly studied by medieval scholars, who used them to develop new theories in philosophy, medicine, and natural sciences.

Figures such as Thomas Aquinas engaged deeply with the works of Aristotle, relying on the commentaries provided by Averroes to navigate complex philosophical questions.

In mathematics, the introduction of Arabic numerals and algebra, based on Al-Khwarizmi's work, revolutionized European learning, helping to advance commerce and astronomy.

This even sped up the rise of universities and the development of scholarly traditions in Europe.