The remarkable history of Knossos, one of Europe’s oldest cities

In the fertile plains of Crete, Knossos began its early life during the Neolithic period around 7000 BCE, a time when the first settlers arrived and established small communities.

Archaeological evidence from these early layers of habitation shows simple, mud-brick structures built directly onto the natural bedrock, suggesting a modest lifestyle centered on agriculture and basic crafts.

Over time, these early communities expanded and developed into an organized settlement.

By 6000 BCE, the inhabitants constructed increasingly complex homes and started cultivating crops like barley, wheat, and lentils. 

During these early centuries, the people of Knossos relied on locally sourced materials to create tools, pottery, and simple decorations.

Artifacts recovered from this period reveal small, crafted figurines, possibly used in early religious or cultural practices.

Excavations also unearthed an array of polished stone tools. By 5000 BCE, the population had grown significantly, and new construction methods became evident, incorporating stones into foundations to provide greater durability. 

Around 4000 BCE, the introduction of early trade networks connected Knossos to other Aegean islands and possibly the mainland, which brought new materials like obsidian, which was prized for its sharp edges in toolmaking.

These early connections suggest that even at this early stage, Knossos was becoming part of a broader network that extended across the Mediterranean. 

As the Early Minoan period progressed around 2000 BCE, Knossos developed into a sophisticated urban center, marked by an architectural style that was unprecedented in the Aegean world.

This transformation was driven by the construction of the first grand palace, an intricate complex with courtyards, storerooms, and workshops, which supported the economic and political structure of the city.

Built with skilled craftsmanship, the palace walls displayed vibrant frescoes depicting ceremonial scenes and natural landscapes, illustrating a society deeply connected to both its religious practices and natural surroundings.

This architectural marvel functioned as the heart of Minoan administration and served as a residence for the ruling elite. 

Thanks to its extensive trade networks, Knossos connected with Egypt, Anatolia, and the Near East.

Merchants and artisans of Knossos exported goods like olive oil, wine, and finely crafted pottery, which were highly valued by neighboring civilizations.

Around 1800 BCE, Knossos incorporated advanced drainage systems, terracotta pipes, and storerooms capable of holding vast reserves of grain and oil. 

In this prosperous period, religious and cultural practices flourished, centered around complex rituals and ceremonies that were often held within the palace complex.

Priests and priestesses performed rituals in sacred rooms and open-air courts, often in honor of the mother goddess, a central figure in Minoan spirituality.

These religious leaders likely played an influential role in both spiritual and political matters, as evidenced by the elaborate shrines and symbols found throughout Knossos. 

The version of the Knossos palace complex that we know today covered approximately 20,000 square meters and first began construction around 2000 BCE.

The central courtyard measured roughly 50 by 30 meters. Surrounding this open space were intricate, multi-level chambers accessible by staircases, which were carefully engineered to create a labyrinthine layout.

The Minoans employed a structural system of large, sturdy columns made from local cypress wood, which provided both strength and flexibility, essential for an earthquake-prone region. 

Elaborately decorated frescoes adorned the walls of many rooms and represented various scenes from Minoan culture, including nature, religious ceremonies, and athletic events.

The most iconic example, the ‘Bull-Leaping Fresco’, depicted young Minoans engaging in a sport that involved leaping over bulls, reflecting a unique aspect of Minoan ritual and athleticism.

Additionally, the vibrant colors, achieved through mineral-based pigments, retained their luster through the centuries due to the Minoans’ advanced painting techniques.

Scenes of dolphins, flowers, and daily life covered the walls of smaller rooms, creating a vivid atmosphere that celebrated the natural world. 

Archaeologists uncovered vast storage jars, some as tall as 1.5 meters, which were used to store large quantities of olive oil, wine, and grain.

These goods likely supplied not only the palace inhabitants but also fueled trade with other Mediterranean societies.

Among the most significant artifacts were clay tablets inscribed with Linear A, an undeciphered script used by the Minoans.

These tablets numbered over 3,000 and recorded details of inventories and transactions, hinting at the vast bureaucratic structure that underpinned Minoan administration. 

Throughout the second millennium BCE, Knossos held a pivotal position in Mediterranean trade, where its strategic location on Crete enabled it to connect with numerous Aegean islands and distant regions.

By controlling trade routes, Knossos facilitated the movement of goods such as pottery, olive oil, wine, and textiles, which were produced locally and then exported to places like Egypt, Anatolia, and the Levant.

These exchanges were essential to the Minoan economy, as they brought wealth into Knossos and allowed the city to acquire valuable resources, including copper from Cyprus and luxury items like gold and ivory.

This influx of materials fostered both the prosperity of Knossos and the development of specialized crafts within the palace workshops. 

Additionally, Knossos developed strong trade relations with the Cyclades, where Minoan pottery and art styles spread rapidly.

This artistic influence can be seen in Cycladic settlements such as Akrotiri on Thera, where archaeologists found Minoan-style frescoes and ceramics.

The Minoans, in turn, imported materials that were scarce on Crete, such as tin, which they combined with copper to produce bronze.

This bronze production was essential for crafting weapons, tools, and decorative items, which elevated the status of Knossos as a manufacturing center.

Artisans in Knossos created intricate items like jewelry, seals, and weapons that were in high demand, both within Crete and in foreign markets.  

Objects featuring Minoan symbols, such as the double axe and the bull, became widespread, suggesting that Knossos’s cultural impact reached well beyond its own borders.

This economic and cultural exchange contributed to the power and prestige of Knossos, which thrived as a central hub in the Mediterranean. 

Around 1700 BCE, Knossos experienced a devastating earthquake that led to the destruction of much of the palace complex.

Due to the seismic activity of Crete’s geological landscape, these powerful quakes struck the island periodically, forcing the Minoans to adapt and rebuild.

The people of Knossos rebuilt the palace on a grander scale, incorporating innovative architectural techniques to increase stability and durability.

Builders replaced weaker structures with more fortified columns and used reinforced materials, crafting a resilient foundation designed to withstand future tremors. 

However, around 1600 BCE, another disaster struck the Minoan civilization, as the eruption of the Thera volcano on the island of Santorini, 100 kilometers north of Crete, caused widespread devastation.

The eruption was one of the largest in ancient history, releasing massive amounts of ash, pumice, and toxic gases into the atmosphere.

As a result, Crete experienced severe environmental consequences, including tsunamis and a drastic shift in climate that disrupted agricultural production.

The tsunamis likely destroyed coastal settlements and impacted trade routes, which affected Knossos’s access to resources and destabilized the regional economy.

Additionally, volcanic ash covered parts of Crete, affecting air quality and soil fertility, which posed significant challenges for the survival of Knossos and its people. 

Following this catastrophic eruption, the people of Knossos once again undertook an ambitious rebuilding effort.

Architects and laborers incorporated design modifications that emphasized both aesthetic beauty and structural integrity, adding multi-storied buildings, frescoed walls, and spacious courtyards.

This led to the creation of a palace that was both functional and visually impressive.

Thanks to these reconstructions, Knossos managed to thrive for several centuries. 

By the middle of the 15th century BCE, due to recurring natural disasters and economic strain from diminished trade routes, the stability of Knossos weakened over time.

These issues disrupted the once-prosperous trade networks. Without a steady influx of resources, Knossos found it increasingly difficult to maintain the expansive palace complex and support the population.

Agricultural yields also declined due to soil exhaustion and the lingering effects of the Thera eruption, which had drastically altered Crete's climate and impacted its agriculture. 

Around 1450 BCE, Mycenaean Greeks from mainland Greece began asserting dominance across the Aegean, establishing their influence over Crete, including Knossos.

Archaeologists have identified Linear B tablets, which were written in the Mycenaean script, within the palace complex, suggesting that Knossos fell under Mycenaean control.

This takeover reshaped the administrative structure, language, and government of Knossos, integrating it into the Mycenaean world.

Meanwhile, the Mycenaean administration restructured the economy and social organization of Knossos. 

By 1375 BCE, Knossos suffered a final wave of destruction, likely due to another earthquake or possible Mycenaean internal conflict, which resulted in the abandonment of the palace complex.

This event was the end of Knossos as an influential center in the Aegean. The destruction left behind fragmented remnants of a once-great civilization, which was ultimately absorbed into the expanding Mycenaean sphere.

Following this decline, Knossos never regained its former prominence, and the site gradually faded from the political and economic landscape of the ancient world, leaving behind ruins that would captivate archaeologists thousands of years later. 

In 1900, British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans began excavations at Knossos, driven by his fascination with ancient Cretan myths and the desire to uncover the remains of the legendary Minoan civilization.

He quickly uncovered sections of the remaining palace complex. Evans named this civilization the ‘Minoans’, inspired by the mythical King Minos, and introduced the term to describe the culture he believed once thrived on Crete.

Through careful excavation, Evans brought to light multi-storied buildings, expansive courtyards, and the complex drainage system that provided insights into the advanced nature of Minoan society. 

As he continued his work, Evans discovered thousands of clay tablets inscribed with Linear A and Linear B scripts.

These tablets provided evidence of a sophisticated bureaucratic system and detailed aspects of trade, taxation, and resource management.

In fact, the discovery of Linear B was one of the most significant breakthroughs, leading to a greater understanding of the Mycenaean civilization that later took over Knossos.

The script would eventually be deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris, revealing the Mycenaean language and confirming their connection to the later Greek civilization.

Meanwhile, the Linear A script remains undeciphered, preserving some of the mystery surrounding the original Minoan language and its cultural practices. 

During his work at Knossos, Evans took the controversial step of reconstructing sections of the palace, using concrete to rebuild walls and repaint frescoes based on his interpretations.

These reconstructions, though criticized by some archaeologists for altering the site, aimed to provide visitors with a tangible sense of Minoan life.

Evans’s reconstructed frescoes, such as the ‘Prince of the Lilies’ and the ‘Bull-Leaping’ scenes, brought Minoan art into the global consciousness.

His interpretations influenced how the world viewed Knossos and the Minoans, establishing the image of a vibrant, peaceful society dedicated to art, ritual, and nature.

Evans transformed the field of Aegean archaeology and redefined ancient history by introducing the Minoans as a previously unknown European civilization.

His work inspired further excavations across Crete, fueling interest in Bronze Age cultures throughout the Mediterranean.