Lycurgus: How one visionary transformed ancient Sparta into a fierce military state

Before Lycurgus’ reforms transformed Sparta into a society defined by its military strength, the city-state faced a set of distinct challenges.

Situated in the fertile Eurotas Valley, Sparta occupied a valuable yet vulnerable position, which left it exposed to conflicts with neighboring territories.

Around the 8th century BCE, Sparta was divided by internal conflicts as aristocratic families competed for power, and the gap between the wealthy and the poor widened.

In response, Spartan leaders began expanding their territory through conquest, notably during the First Messenian War, which erupted around 743 BCE.

This war, which was fought to gain control of Messenia's resources and population, provided Sparta with new land but also forced it to confront significant social issues. 

With victory over Messenia, Sparta’s leaders turned thousands of Messenians into helots—state-owned serfs—whose labor supported the Spartan economy.

Yet this new class of helots posed a constant threat. By the 7th century BCE, uprisings among the helots grew more frequent, which forced Sparta to divert its resources to suppress revolts.

Tensions between classes within Sparta intensified, leading to social unrest and diminishing the unity needed for effective military strength.

This period of instability also influenced Spartan political structures, which were dominated by a small elite who monopolized power and controlled the wealth.

Political offices were held primarily by a few noble families, which created resentment among the lower classes and reinforced social divisions. 

Meanwhile, Sparta’s cultural structure developed slowly compared to other Greek city-states, like Athens, which were beginning to experiment with forms of political reform.

Spartans focused their efforts on survival, with fewer resources devoted to the arts or philosophy.

Their society was still decentralized and lacked the cohesion that later defined it.

Furthermore, the absence of a clear code or constitution left Spartan society loosely governed and unstable.

Without an organized social system, Sparta struggled to unify its citizens under a common identity or purpose. 

According to ancient accounts, Lycurgus was born into the Eurypontid royal line, and was reputedly the younger son of King Eunomus, which meant he was not expected to rule.

However, when his elder brother, the reigning king, passed away, Lycurgus found himself suddenly responsible for the royal lineage and the future of Sparta.

This responsibility grew heavier with the birth of his nephew, who was the rightful heir to the throne.

By some accounts, Lycurgus served as regent, safeguarding the kingdom and preparing to restore order in a time of social strain and political fragmentation. 

In pursuit of wisdom and knowledge, Lycurgus embarked on a journey across Greece and beyond.

He reportedly traveled to Crete, a land famous for its structured laws, and consulted with the legendary lawgivers of its cities.

He then journeyed to Ionia, where he observed a culture rich in art and luxury but weakened by indulgence, a warning he would later apply to his own people.

Some sources suggest that he even reached Egypt, which was known for its ancient wisdom, or ventured to consult the oracle at Delphi.

However, upon his return to Sparta, Lycurgus sought to implement sweeping reforms. 

In response to the various problems plaguing Sparta at the time, Lycurgus is said to have created the Great Rhetra in the 7th century BCE: a guiding framework that redefined Sparta's legal and social organization.

Traditionally seen as a foundational constitution, the Great Rhetra laid out principles that directed all aspects of Spartan life and reinforced their communal values.

According to historical accounts, it included stipulations about Sparta's political structures, such as the establishment of the gerousia, or council of elders, which was composed of twenty-eight men over sixty, plus the two kings.

This council was charged with advising on important matters and wielding significant influence.

The Rhetra also granted power to the apella, an assembly of male citizens, which met regularly to vote on matters presented by the gerousia. 

The Great Rhetra mandated that Sparta’s leaders avoid constructing physical boundaries around the city, which meant that Spartans were expected to maintain an austere, resilient way of life without reliance on defensive walls.

This directive encouraged Spartans to prioritize the discipline and readiness of their citizen-warriors.

By focusing on individual and collective strength, Sparta established itself as a militarized society where each citizen played a vital role in its defense.

Furthermore, the Rhetra emphasized eunomia, a concept that valued lawful order and harmony in society, which was essential for preventing internal strife.

Eunomia represented a commitment to collective welfare, in which each citizen understood their duty to Sparta as part of a greater whole. 

Moreover, the Great Rhetra addressed Sparta's economic practices, including restrictions on wealth accumulation and the introduction of iron currency.

Spartans used iron currency instead of precious metals, a choice which deterred hoarding and helped prevent the rise of a wealthy elite that could disrupt social unity.

The iron coins, which were cumbersome and low in value, discouraged trade with other city-states and limited Sparta’s exposure to foreign luxuries.

This economic self-sufficiency, which reflected Lycurgus’ vision of communal stability, reinforced the idea that Spartans should live frugally and focus on military service rather than personal wealth. 

Under Lycurgus’ reforms, Spartan society became structured around a distinct social hierarchy and a rigorous system of education, known as the agoge.

Beginning at the age of seven, every male Spartan citizen, or Spartiate, entered this state-controlled training system.

The agoge focused on developing physical endurance, combat skills, and unwavering loyalty to Sparta. They practiced wrestling, weapon handling, and public speaking.

Boys faced a challenging regime that included communal living, harsh physical conditioning, and lessons in survival tactics.

The young Spartiates were subjected to periodic examinations, which tested their strength and discipline.

Successful completion of the agoge allowed them to join the ranks of the citizen-soldiers, reinforcing the strong sense of camaraderie that defined Spartan identity. 

To support this militarized society, Lycurgus implemented a social structure divided into three main classes: the Spartiates, perioeci, and helots.

The Spartiates, who were full citizens, dedicated themselves to military service and state affairs. 

They relied on the labor of the helots, a class of subjugated people primarily from Messenia who were bound to the land and forced to work it.

The tens of thousands of helots farmed and provided essential goods, which freed the Spartiates from agricultural labor and allowed them to focus solely on military pursuits.

Unlike the Spartiates, helots faced harsh treatment, as the Spartans considered them a potential threat due to their large numbers.

Frequently, the Spartans conducted raids on the helot population to reinforce their control and suppress any potential uprisings. 

Alongside these two groups was the perioeci, who were free but not full citizens, who played an important role in Spartan society.

As merchants, artisans, and craftsmen, the perioeci supported Sparta’s economy and maintained external trade without jeopardizing the self-sufficiency valued by the Spartiates.

The perioeci, who were also obligated to fight in the military during times of war, provided Sparta with essential resources and skills, filling the gap between agricultural labor and the exclusive role of the Spartiates as warriors.  

To transform Sparta into a formidable military power, Lycurgus implemented reforms that reshaped the city-state’s approach to warfare and introduced rigorous discipline within its ranks.

By standardizing military training and developing new tactics, he created a fighting force that could operate as a cohesive unit.

Specifically, the hoplite phalanx became the cornerstone of Spartan warfare, a formation that required each soldier to stand shoulder-to-shoulder, creating a solid wall of shields and spears.

This formation demanded unwavering discipline and unity, as any break could lead to a collapse in defense.

Spartan hoplites were armed with large round shields, known as aspis, and long spears measuring approximately eight feet.

The Spartans trained each citizen-soldier to remain steadfast in battle, with drills that emphasized rhythm, precision, and collective movement, making the phalanx an almost impenetrable force on the battlefield. 

The city-state assigned each citizen to a syssitia, or common mess, where they ate and lived with their comrades.

Each soldier became part of a unit bound by loyalty, discipline, and the expectation of self-sacrifice.

This communal lifestyle, combined with the intensive training, forged a society where individual interests were secondary to the welfare of Sparta.

Consequently, Spartan warriors earned a reputation that intimidated opponents across Greece, making the Spartans a force respected and feared by their allies and enemies alike. 

By the time they reached adulthood, Spartan men were fully prepared to face combat and uphold their city’s values through battle.

By maintaining an elite warrior class of roughly 8,000 Spartiates at the height of Sparta’s power, the city-state upheld a level of military prowess that was almost unmatched in ancient Greece. 

To address economic inequality in Sparta, Lycurgus introduced a radical redistribution of land and wealth.

Previously, land ownership had been concentrated among a few wealthy families, creating an imbalance that limited the economic stability of the average citizen.

Lycurgus divided the land into equal plots, or kleroi, assigning each plot to a Spartan citizen, which meant that every Spartiate received enough land to support himself and his family.

This redistribution created a balanced economic structure, reducing the risk of division caused by wealth concentration. 

Meanwhile, Lycurgus ensured that Sparta’s economy functioned without heavy dependence on external trade, fostering a self-sufficient society that prioritized internal stability over external wealth.

By using helot labor for agriculture, Sparta could sustain a secure and consistent food supply without relying on trade networks.

Consequently, Lycurgus’ economic reforms reinforced the social order, where each class had a clearly defined role that supported the state’s stability and military focus. 

According to legend, Lycurgus left Sparta once his laws were firmly in place. Some sources claim that he traveled once more to the oracle at Delphi, where he pledged never to return to Sparta so that his laws would remain unaltered in his absence.

Ancient writers, including Plutarch, relayed that Lycurgus died in voluntary exile. But how many of the stories about Lycurgus are true? 

Ancient sources like Herodotus and Plutarch attributed the foundational reforms of Sparta to a real person called Lycurgus, crediting him with the creation of the agoge, the establishment of the Great Rhetra, and the formation of Spartan social structures.

However, due to a lack of direct evidence, many modern historians question whether Lycurgus was a historical person, or a construct used to legitimize Spartan customs.

These scholars argue that the figure of Lycurgus likely evolved through oral tradition, allowing later Spartans to attribute their distinctive social practices to a single figure, thereby strengthening their sense of unity and heritage. 

Significantly, the debate over Lycurgus impacts how historians interpret Spartan history and values.

If Lycurgus were a historical figure, his reforms would reflect the deliberate choices of a lawgiver aiming to address specific societal issues within early Sparta.

On the other hand, viewing Lycurgus as a myth emphasizes the role of collective identity in shaping Spartan society.

This interpretation suggests that the Spartans valued the idealized qualities of discipline, austerity, and loyalty so highly that they constructed a legendary figure to embody these traits.

Consequently, understanding Lycurgus as a symbolic figure reveals much about the cultural ideals that defined Sparta and its people.