Who was the shadowy pharaoh Neferneferuaten? Ancient Egypt’s most elusive mystery...

The short stage of Egyptian historian known as the ‘Amarna Period’ only lasted from approximately 1353 to 1336 BCE, but it left deep scars in the kingdom’s psyche.

It began under the reign of controversial Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who chose to change his name to Akhenaten and unleash a radical overhaul of the traditional Egyptian religious practices.

Specifically, he introduced the worship of Aten, the sun disc, as the only god. This meant that he abandoned the polytheistic traditions that had defined Egyptian religion for over 1000 years.

In addition, he abandoned the capital city of Egypt at Thebes and constructed an entirely new city called Akhetaten, known today as Amarna. 

These monumental decisions all took place around the fifth year of Akhenaten’s reign.

The city of Amarna was specifically designed to be the epicenter of his new religion, and it housed a range of temples dedicated exclusively to Aten.

By elevating Aten as the sole deity, Akhenaten effectively dismantled the powerful priesthood of Amun and other traditional gods, which had long been central to Egyptian religion and state affairs.

However, Akhenaten’s reforms faced significant resistance from the powerful priesthood of Amun back in Thebes.

In addition, the broader Egyptian populace remained attached to the old gods.

Over time, the disruption caused by these changes weakened the state, leading to political instability. 

Following Akhenaten’s death around 1336 BCE, the period of Amarna quickly unraveled.

The exact order of events over the next few years is unclear, as a number of short-lived pharaohs are mentioned as holding power, including two the two enigmatic names, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten.

It would not be until the reign of Tutankhamun, which began in 1332 BCE, that we can be certain of who the king of Egypt was.

It was Tutankhamun that finally attempted to restore order in the land by returning to the worship of the traditional gods and overturning the religious changes instituted by Akhenaten.

The city of Akhetaten was abandoned, and efforts were even made to erase the memory of Akhenaten’s reign from history entirely.

Ultimately, the capital returned to Thebes, and the religious reforms of Akhenaten were largely undone. 

That chaotic few years between the death of Akhenaten and the start of Tutankhamun is one of the most tantalizing transition periods in the New Kingdom.

So very little is known, particularly about the two rulers Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten.

However, it is the latter name that remains one of the most difficult figures inall of ancient Egyptian history.

The name, which means 'Beautiful are the Beauties of Aten', appeared during the latter part of the Amarna Period, but the exact identity of Neferneferuaten has long been difficult to establish. 

Neferneferuaten would have ruled during a period of immense pressure to uphold Akhenaten’s religious reforms while also dealing with the political consequences of these changes.

The centralization of religious power in the hands of the pharaoh disrupted the delicate balance that had existed between the state and the religious institutions.

To sustain Akhenaten’s vision, Neferneferuaten likely continued the promotion of Atenism, but this decision would have exacerbated tensions with the established religious order and the broader population. 

However, one potentially complicating factor is that this person may not have been a sole-ruling pharaoh, but a ‘coregent’. 

A coregency is when two pharaohs ruled simultaneously, typically an older king alongside a younger successor.

As a result, part of the mystery might be due to the fact that Neferneferuaten may have ruled as a coregent with Akhenaten or even after his death, or another pharaoh afterwards.

Such a scenario would explain the sudden appearance of this name in the historical record, but this theory doesn’t always fit perfectly with the evidence that survives. 

The scarcity of records, combined with the destruction or alteration of many inscriptions during the return to traditional religious practices, has left historians with only fragments of evidence in order to reach an answer.

Inscriptions are among the most crucial sources for Egyptologists. Some of them explicitly mention Neferneferuaten alongside titles like “Ankhetkheperure,” a name that has been linked to a female pharaoh or a ruler associated with Akhenaten’s religious revolution.

These inscriptions, though fragmented, have been instrumental in forming theories about who Neferneferuaten might have been.

However, the poor condition of these texts often leaves room for multiple interpretations. 

However, a number of artifacts have also been found bearing the name Neferneferuaten, sometimes paired with imagery associated with both royal and divine figures.

Perhaps the most famous important clues are a number of items in Tutankhamun's tomb (KV62) were originally inscribed for Neferneferuaten.

This includes an inscription on a box and a gold pectoral depicting the goddess Nut. There is also an inscription or graffito in the tomb of Pair.

This has led some to speculate about a close connection between the two rulers.

Additionally, certain artifacts suggest that Neferneferuaten may have had a role in the burial of Akhenaten or in the early years of Tutankhamun’s reign. 

It is clear that these items were originally designed for Neferneferuaten but later altered to Tutankhamun’s name.

This discovery suggests that there may have been a brief period of coregency or in the early years of Tutankhamun’s reign.

As such, these findings have prompted theories that Neferneferuaten may have had a close relationship with Tutankhamun. 

Additionally, in 2018, a study of a stela from Amarna revealed a possible reference to Neferneferuaten’s role in religious rituals dedicated to Aten.

The stela, which dates back to the final years of Akhenaten’s reign, depicted a figure possibly identified as Neferneferuaten offering to Aten.

This discovery reignited the debate over whether they were a female ruler. 

Nefertiti was one of ancient Egypt's most renowned queens and is currently a leading candidate for the identity of Neferneferuaten.

Her importance of her contributions during Akhenaten’s reign and the significant power she wielded have led many scholars to believe she might have ruled Egypt after her husband's death.

Known for her striking beauty and the iconic bust that has fascinated people for centuries, Nefertiti played a central role in Akhenaten’s religious revolution, supporting the worship of Aten.

Therefore, her strong association with Aten and her influence in the royal court make a compelling case for her as Neferneferuaten. 

In some inscriptions, Neferneferuaten is linked with titles and epithets that suggest a female ruler.

The use of the phrase "Effective for her husband" in particular points to a queenly figure rather than a male pharaoh.

This phrase has led many Egyptologists to argue that Nefertiti assumed the throne for the purposes of continuing his religious reforms under a new name.

By taking on a pharaonic title, she would have reinforced her authority during a period of potential instability. 

Additionally, Nefertiti's disappearance from historical records during the later years of Akhenaten’s reign has fueled speculation that this is because she adopted the name Neferneferuaten to rule as pharaoh.

Some scholars suggest that this change was a strategic move to solidify her power in a time when Egypt faced internal and external challenges.

However, the lack of definitive evidence connecting Nefertiti directly to Neferneferuaten leaves room for doubt.

Theories about her assuming the pharaonic role are built on a foundation of circumstantial evidence rather than concrete proof. 

Nevertheless, the artistic representations of Nefertiti, often depicted alongside Akhenaten in a near-equal capacity, strengthen the argument that she could have succeeded him.

These depictions highlight her elevated status, which was unusual for queens of the time.

The possibility that she transitioned from queen to pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten aligns with her demonstrated influence and authority.

Yet, without more substantial evidence, the theory remains one of several possibilities in the quest to uncover the true identity of Neferneferuaten. 

The eldest daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti is another potentially viable candidate.

Known as Meritaten, held a prominent role in the Amarna court during her life.

Given her status as the firstborn and the various honorific titles she held, Meritaten may have been poised to assume power follower the death of her father. 

In inscriptions and reliefs, Meritaten frequently appeared alongside Akhenaten, often depicted with the same religious symbols associated with Aten.

Her close association with the royal family’s religious duties has led to the theory that she could have taken on the mantle of pharaoh after Akhenaten's death.

With the kingdom facing potential instability and the need for continuity, Meritaten may have been seen as a logical choice to carry on her father’s legacy. 

Additionally, some historians argue that the second mysterious name 'Ankhetkheperure' was used by Meritaten when she ascended to the throne, possibly as a co-regent with Smenkhkare or in her own right.

This theory gains some support from the fact that Meritaten’s name continued to appear in inscriptions after Akhenaten's death, suggesting that she played an important role in the transitional period. 

Some scholars have suggested that the answer lies in the second mysterious name from this period: Smenkhkare.

However, Smenkhkare's existence in the historical record is frustratingly scant, with only a few inscriptions and artifacts attributed to him.

Regardless, there is the possibility that Smenkhkare took on the name Neferneferuaten during his reign. 

In some records, Smenkhkare appears to have ruled as a co-regent with Akhenaten during the final years of the latter's reign.

This co-regency, if it occurred, would have placed Smenkhkare in a position of considerable power at a time when the Amarna Period was nearing its end.

Some scholars have proposed that Neferneferuaten could be a regnal name adopted by Smenkhkare during this period. 

Moreover, the name Neferneferuaten has been found on artifacts that some believe originally belonged to Smenkhkare, suggesting a possible connection.

These artifacts, including a canopic jar and fragments of a burial chamber, have led to speculation that Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were the same person. 

Interestingly, there are several lesser-known and speculative ideas about Neferneferuaten's identity.

One such theory suggests that Neferneferuaten could have been a figure unrelated to the royal family all together, possibly a high-ranking official or a religious leader.

This idea stems from the notion that the Amarna Period’s upheaval may have created a power vacuum, allowing an influential individual outside the immediate royal line to assume control. 

Alternatively, some researchers have even posited that Neferneferuaten could have been a symbolic or collective name used by multiple rulers or high-ranking individuals who sought to continue Akhenaten's religious reforms.

This theory suggests that rather than a single pharaoh, the name Neferneferuaten might have represented a group of loyalists who governed in the wake of Akhenaten’s death.

By adopting a shared name, these rulers or officials could have attempted to maintain the ideological continuity of Atenism during a period of uncertainty. 

A more unusual theory proposes that Neferneferuaten could have been a younger, lesser-known daughter of Akhenaten, possibly one who did not survive into adulthood.

The argument here hinges on the possibility that a short-lived daughter, perhaps born late in Akhenaten’s reign, briefly held the throne under this name before her early death.

The scarcity of records and the tendency for the erasure of certain names from history during later periods make this theory difficult to verify.  

As you can see, despite the efforts of countless Egyptologists, the true nature of this ruler is incredibly difficult to establish.

The fragmentary and often contradictory evidence that has survived from the Amarna Period, along with the deliberate erasure of certain names and the alteration of inscriptions by later rulers have only added to the confusion.

The consequence of this historical revisionism has been the loss of critical information that might have clarified Neferneferuaten’s identity. 

Unfortunately, with every new discovery, the mystery only deepens. The most recent finds have provided additional pieces to the puzzle, yet they have also introduced new questions.

As things currently stand, without further definitive evidence, all theories remain speculative.

The mystery of Neferneferuaten is probably the best example of the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists when they attempt to reconstruct the past from incomplete and often ambiguous historical records.