Was Pericles' Funeral Oration the greatest speech of the ancient world?

The Peloponnesian War engulfed ancient Greece from 431 to 404 BCE and pitted the Athenian Empire against the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta.

The war began due to the growing tension between Athens and Sparta, which was exacerbated by Athens' aggressive expansion and dominance over the Delian League.

This rivalry created an atmosphere of mistrust and hostility, eventually erupting into full-scale war. In 431 BCE, hostilities commenced when Thebes, an ally of Sparta, attacked Plataea, an ally of Athens.

Consequently, the conflict quickly escalated, drawing in nearly all Greek city-states. 

In the early stages of the war, the Athenian strategy was devised by Pericles, which relied on naval superiority and avoided direct land battles with the formidable Spartan hoplites.

Prior to the war, Pericles had embarked on an ambitious program to strengthen democracy. He introduced reforms that allowed greater participation in government by the lower classes, including payment for jury service.

Under his leadership, Athens experienced unprecedented cultural and architectural growth. In particular, Pericles initiated the construction of the famous Parthenon on the Acropolis. 

The Funeral Oration of Pericles took place during a solemn and significant ceremony in Athens. Each year, the Athenians held a public funeral to honor the soldiers who had fallen in battle.

This ceremony was an important event for the city. By 431 BCE, the first year of the Peloponnesian War, the need to commemorate the dead became even more pronounced. 

During the ceremony, the bones of the fallen were placed in cypress coffins, one for each tribe, and a separate coffin for the remains of the unidentified soldiers.

These coffins were displayed in a tent for three days, which allowed the public to pay their respects. The procession then moved to the public cemetery outside the city walls, a place reserved for those who died in war.

Pericles, as a prominent statesman, was chosen to deliver the oration. 

The audience for Pericles' speech included a wide cross-section of Athenian society. Citizens from all walks of life gathered to honor the deceased and to hear the oration.

Many families mourned the loss of their loved ones, while others came to show their support for the city and its values.

As a result, Pericles aimed to inspire and unite the people of Athens. He used the opportunity to remind them of their city’s greatness and the sacrifices made to preserve it. 

Pericles' Funeral Oration began with a modest acknowledgment of the difficulty in delivering such a speech. He expressed doubt about his ability to match the deeds of the fallen with words.

Pericles then shifted to praising the ancestors of the Athenians, acknowledging their role in establishing the foundations of the city.

He highlighted their bravery and wisdom, which he said ensured the prosperity and security of Athens. 

Next, Pericles lauded the current generation of Athenians for their achievements. He spoke about the Athenian democracy, emphasizing its unique qualities and superiority over other systems.

By pointing out that power was in the hands of the many and not the few, he celebrated the equality and justice prevalent in their society.

Furthermore, he praised the laws that provided equal justice for all and the opportunities available for personal advancement based on merit. 

In addition to these political achievements, Pericles extolled the cultural and intellectual advancements of Athens. He highlighted the city's open and inclusive society, where citizens enjoyed leisure and pursued various forms of art and learning.

Specifically, he contrasted the Athenian way of life with that of their adversaries, particularly the Spartans. Clearly, Pericles wanted to remind the Athenians of their city's greatness, not just in terms of power, but in terms of culture and thought. 

As was to be expected, Pericles also dedicated a portion of his speech to directly honor the fallen soldiers. He described their bravery and sacrifice, stating that their actions spoke louder than any words.

By dying for their city, they achieved an eternal glory that transcended their mortal lives. Therefore, he encouraged the living to emulate the courage and patriotism of the deceased.

Pericles hoped to inspire the citizens to continue supporting the war effort and to remain steadfast in their defense of Athens. 

Pericles employed a variety of rhetorical techniques in his Funeral Oration to effectively communicate his message. One notable technique was his use of ethos, which established his credibility and authority.

By acknowledging the difficulty of his task and praising the ancestors and the current generation, he positioned himself as a humble yet knowledgeable leader.

This approach helped to build trust with his audience. 

Another technique Pericles used was pathos, aimed at evoking emotions in his audience. He spoke with great admiration and respect for the fallen soldiers, describing their bravery and sacrifice in vivid terms.

Consequently, his words stirred feelings of pride and grief among the listeners. He also appealed to the emotions of the families of the deceased by offering words of comfort and encouragement.

This emotional appeal helped to unify the audience and strengthen their resolve to support the war effort. 

Most famously, Pericles utilized antithesis to create a clear contrast between Athens and its enemies. He juxtaposed the freedom and openness of Athenian society with the rigid and oppressive nature of Sparta.

This technique highlighted the differences in values and power-sharing between the two cities. By presenting Athens as a model of democracy and enlightenment, Pericles reinforced the moral superiority of his city. 

Finally, Pericles employed anaphora, the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. This rhetorical device added rhythm and emphasis to his speech, making his points more memorable and impactful.

For example, he repeatedly used phrases such as "we do" and "we are" to underscore the collective achievements and values of the Athenians.

As a result, anaphora enhanced the persuasive power of his oration. 

Pericles' speech became a crucial reference point for democratic ideals. His emphasis on equality, justice, and the collective responsibility of citizens influenced later political thought.

In particular, his articulation of democracy inspired future generations of thinkers and leaders. Pericles’ vision of an engaged and empowered citizenry laid foundational concepts that continue to underpin democratic societies today. 

The immediate impact of the oration was also significant in terms of public sentiment. By commemorating the fallen soldiers, Pericles provided a sense of closure and collective mourning.

His words offered solace to the bereaved families and validated their sacrifices. Additionally, the oration reinforced social cohesion by emphasizing shared values and experiences.

In doing so, it helped to unify the city during a time of intense conflict and uncertainty. 

The long-term consequences of Pericles' Funeral Oration can be observed in its lasting legacy in Western literature and rhetoric.

Scholars and statesmen have studied and referenced the speech for centuries, where they admired its rhetorical brilliance and philosophical depth.

By preserving Pericles' words, Thucydides ensured that future generations could learn from and reflect on this remarkable expression of civic pride and democratic values.