What was an ancient Roman dictator?

The term "dictator" in ancient Rome derived from the Latin word "dictare," meaning to assert or give orders. The earliest evidence of this role appears around 501 BC when the Roman Republic needed a sudden solution for emergencies.

When a crisis arose, the Roman Senate nominated a candidate, usually an experienced and trusted statesman. The consuls, the highest elected officials, then formally appointed the dictator.

In these appointments, the selection aimed to ensure swift and decisive action to address the emergency.  

Importantly, the role of the dictator included appointing a subordinate, known as the ‘Master of the Horse’. This official acted as their deputy and assisted with military duties as well as to ensure effective command of the cavalry.

With his help, the dictator could maintain control over military operations while also delegating specific tasks. The dictator's tenure lasted for a maximum of six months.

This was deemed enough time to resolve the problem and ensure that the extraordinary power granted would not become permanent.

And, after the completion of their term, they were expected to hand back their powers and return to private life. 

A Roman dictator wielded immense powers that far exceeded those of regular magistrates. In fact, Roman dictators were appointed to handle both military and civil issues.

The primary responsibility was to address and resolve the crisis that necessitated their appointment. To ensure their effectiveness in the role, the dictator had a clear mandate, often specified by the Senate.

Therefore, this role required decisive and swift action. In many instances, the dictator had full control over the military.

They were granted this through the possession of the power of ‘imperium’: the official power to command armies. With this, they could levy troops, lead campaigns, and enforce martial law.  

Moreover, a dictator could enact laws without seeking approval from the Senate or other assemblies. This autonomy was crucial for quick decision-making in times of a national crisis.

In such emergencies, speed and efficiency were paramount, and the dictator's unrestricted authority was designed to facilitate this.

They also had judicial powers, allowing them to pass sentences and enforce laws without delay. Despite this incredible list of almost unlimited powers, the dictator was still expected to act in the best interest of Rome.

However, their decisions during their time in power were subject to later review. Also, even with their extensive authority, dictators were not allowed to alter the fundamental structure of the Republican political system. 

One of the earliest, and most famous, of all Roman dictators was Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus. He was appointed in 458 BC to save a Roman army surrounded by the Aequi, a hostile Italic tribe.

The story goes that Cincinnatus was a humble farmer who left his plow, took over supreme army command, and swiftly defeated the enemy.

After his victory, he simply resigned his office, as well as the unbridled power that came with it, and returned to his farm.

This uncomplicated process of taking up the dictatorship and laying it down once the crisis had passed made him an enduring symbol of Roman virtue. 

At the opposite end of the spectrum Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla took the role of dictator during a tumultuous late republican period in Roman history.

He held the office twice, first in 82 BC and then in 81 BC. Through his brutal reforms, Sulla sought to strengthen the power of the Senate.

He enacted numerous laws to curb the influence of popular assemblies and tribunes, but also murdered hundreds of fellow Romans who he believed were his enemies.

His actions in the dictatorship, though deeply controversial, ended in the traditional manner, as he voluntarily surrendered power when he thought the problems had been solved. 

Perhaps the most famous of all the Roman dictators was Gaius Julius Caesar. Certainly, his tenure was among the most influential.

In 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, and triggered a civil war that split the entire Roman republic in half. He achieved a swift victory over his enemies and, subsequently, was appointed dictator multiple times.

Unlike his predecessors though, Caesar continually extended his term in power and eventually became dictator perpetuo, or ‘dictator for life’.

This progressive concentration of unlimited power in the hands of a single man alarmed many senators. This ended in Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC.

In fact, Caesar time as dictator triggered the end of the Roman Republic and the eventual rise of the Roman Empire. 

The Roman state slowly began using the role of the dictator less and less, due to increasing concerns over the concentration of power.

By the late Republic, figures like Sulla and Julius Caesar had used the dictatorship to enact sweeping reforms and consolidate authority.

After Caesar's assassination, the Roman Senate moved to abolish the dictatorship permanently. In 44 BC, they passed a law prohibiting any future appointments of dictators in order to prevent any individual from amassing excessive power.

The was an attempt at restoring the Republic's traditional political structure. However, the power struggles that followed this indicated that there remained deeper issues within the Republic. 

Ultimately, the rise of the Roman Empire ultimately rendered the position of dictator effectively obsolete. Augustus, Rome's first emperor, consolidated the same series of powers without ever having to use the title of dictator.

Instead, he adopted an entirely new title of princeps, or "first citizen," and held multiple political offices. This new political structure allowed him to exercise supreme authority while maintaining a facade of operating within traditional republican structures.

As a result, the office of dictator was simply replaced by the title of emperor.