Senusret III: The greatest Egyptian pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom you've never heard of

The Middle Kingdom era of Egyptian history began around 2050 BC following the chaos of the First Intermediate Period.

This era had left Egypt fragmented and weakened, with local rulers, known as nomarchs, holding significant power over their regions.

The eventual reunification of the kingdom under King Mentuhotep II finally brought relative stability through the revival of a centralized authority.

However, the subsequent pharaohs still needed to consolidate their power and control over the vast territory of Egypt. 

As the economy began to recover, and trade routes were reopened, maintaining this stability required continuous efforts to suppress internal dissent and defend against external threats.

In particular, the Nubians in the south posed a constant danger to Egypt's borders, which led to frequent military campaigns which were aimed at securing these regions.

Moreover, the pharaohs constantly had to push back against the power of the nomarchs, who still wielded influence in their respective territories. 

Additionally, the Middle Kingdom rulers faced the challenge of rebuilding the nation’s infrastructure, which had deteriorated during the previous period of instability.

This meant that they initiated large-scale construction projects, including temples, forts, and irrigation systems.

By the time of Senusret III’s reign, Egypt had largely regained much of its former territories, but the need to secure and expand its borders remained a priority. 

Senusret III came to the throne as the fifth king of the 12th Dynasty in around 1878 BCE after the death of his father, Pharaoh Senusret II.

He inherited a relatively stable kingdom and enjoyed a smooth transition of power was smooth, thanks in part to the loyalty of key officials and the respect commanded by the royal family.

Firstly, he took steps to centralize power by finally reducing the influence of the regional nomarchs.

Evidence suggests that Senusret III continued the practice began by his father of forcing the nomarchs to send their sons to be educated at the royal court, which would foster a stronger loyalty to the pharaoh than to their fathers.

This strategy seems to have worked, as the use of the Egyptian word for nomarch disappeared from inscriptions by the end of Senusret III's reign.

In their place, Senusret III divided Egypt into two larger districts (waret): one in the north and one in the south. 

They were administered by people directly appointed by the pharaoh himself.

Ultimately, it allowed him to centralize direct control over the apparatus of administration, primarily to ensure that resources and labor were more efficiently managed.  

Once confident of the economic situation, Senusret then launched numerous campaigns into Nubia, a region that was rich in resources, particularly gold, which Egypt coveted.

In his fifth regnal year, Senusret III pushed deep into Nubian territory and undertook a brutal campaign of suppression.

Royal records state that men were killed, the women and children were taken of slaves, crops were burnt and even their drinking water was poisoned.

Senusret followed this by ordering the construction of a series of massive fortresses along the Nile to secure Egypt's southern border.

These fortresses, including the most prominent ones at Buhen and Semna, also became vital key military and administrative centers.

In a calculated move, he also established alliances with various local chieftains, offering them protection and trade opportunities in exchange for their long-term loyalty.

This strategy helped to stabilize the southern frontier by reducing the threat of localized rebellions. 

He would also make addition invasions of Nubia in his 8th, 10th, and 16th years of his rule to ensure the region's continued submission.

Then, Senusret III extended his influence into the Levant around 1849 BCE. This campaign was more of a strategic move, both for trade and military security.

His initial focus was on reestablishing control over the Sinai Peninsula, where Egyptians mined copper and turquoise.

Moreover, his campaigns in the Levant helped to curb the influence of local powers that threatened Egypt's interests.

There is some evidence that he undertook at least one invasion into Palestine itself, but details are limited about what exactly occurred during it.

He also sent emissaries to Byblos, an ancient city on the coast of modern-day Lebanon.

It was an important source of timber and other resources which were vital for Egypt’s construction projects. 

Thanks to the increased trade income and national security, Senusret was able to invest heavily in new construction projects.

In 1869 BCE, he commissioned the construction of his personal pyramid complex at Dahshur, a site that already housed the pyramids of his predecessors.

It was a 60-metre-high structure, made mostly of mudbricks, but encased in limestone.

It also included a series of lavish temples, courtyards, and tombs for other members of the royal family.

In addition, Senusret III implemented a rigorous defense strategy along Egypt's borders.

He ordered the construction of a canal at the first cataract of the Nile in 1864 BCE to make troop movements through the region safer so that it could respond rapidly to any threats.

Around 1860 BCE, Senusret III initiated the standardization of the weights and measures that were used by merchants across Egypt.

The importance of this is largely lost to us today, but this was an important step in increasing confidence in trade within the country, because it reduced disputes and inconsistencies that had previously hindered economic growth.

Furthermore, the trade routes, particularly those to Nubia, were actively secured and expanded so that the flow of goods such as gold, copper, and precious stones into the royal coffers could be assured. 

In a way that had not been possible since the age of the Old Kingdom, Senusret could call upon the large-scale mobilization of the peasants, known as corvée labor, to complete his various projects.

However, they were also directed toward the maintenance of essential infrastructure such as irrigation canals.

As a result, grain production is estimated to have risen by 15% during his reign.

This meant that Egypt could sustain a much larger population which allowed it to also support its increased military endeavors. 

Senusret III died around 1839 BCE, after nearly four decades of rule, though some records suggest he may have continued as co-regent with his son, Amenemhat III, until his death.

His time in power had a profound impact on future pharaohs. His emphasis on centralization of power would serve as a blueprint for later rulers who sought to consolidate the same level of control over Egypt.

As a result, future pharaohs adopted similar strategies to maintain their grip on power, which led to greater political stability in the following centuries. 

Furthermore, Senusret III’s military conquests, particularly those in Nubia, set a powerful precedence.

He showed how a combination of military strength and strategic diplomacy was essential for safeguarding Egypt’s borders.

Many future kings, including those of the New Kingdom, drew inspiration from his campaigns when they sought to extend Egypt’s territory.

In fact, the fortresses Senusret built in Nubia became vital to Egyptian dominance for generations after.