The unbelievable life of Xenophon: Ancient Greek soldier, historian, and exile

Xenophon was born around 431 BCE in the deme of Erchia, near Athens. His family was relatively wealthy, which allowed him to receive a good education.

He had the privilege of studying under the famous philosopher Socrates, whose teachings had a deep impact on his life and works.

However, as a young man, Xenophon was drawn to the military, where he sought adventure and honor on the battlefield. 

In his early twenties, he joined the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother, King Artaxerxes II of Persia. The goal was to seize the throne of the greatest empire on earth at the time.

Unfortunately, at the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BCE, Cyrus was killed. This left his Greek mercenaries stranded deep in enemy territory.

In this critical moment, Xenophon emerged as a key figure, rallying the soldiers and leading them on their perilous journey back to Greece. 

The journey was filled with incredible challenges, including hostile terrain, lack of supplies, and constant threats from Persian forces and local tribes.

Thanks to his strategic insight and unfailing determination, Xenophon managed to eventually guide the army through what are now Iraq and Turkey, to eventual safety. 

After returning to Greece, Xenophon continued his military pursuits. He even fought for Sparta during the Corinthian War from 395 to 387 BCE, though he was an Athenian.

Because of this, he faced exile from Athens. During his extended time with the Spartans, he rose to serve under King Agesilaus II and participated in various campaigns.

In recognition of his service, Sparta granted him an estate at Scillus in the Peloponnese, where he spent many years writing and reflecting on his experiences. 

The Anabasis recounts the harrowing journey of the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries who found themselves stranded deep in Persian territory after the death of Cyrus the Younger at the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BCE.

Described in vivid detail by Xenophon, the journey began in Babylonia. He explains that he only took charge because the other Greek generals were betrayed and killed by Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap.

In this moment of crisis, Xenophon claimed that he had to step up and inspire the troops.

From the heart of Mesopotamia, they embarked on a northward trek, through the mountainous region of Armenia, where they faced extreme cold and snow.

The book makes for fascinating reading, as he detailed their desperate escape across the Tigris River, over the mountains of Kurdistan, and eventually to the shores of the Black Sea coast at Trapezus (modern Trabzon).

Although they felt immense relief and jubilation, the weary soldiers had to continue westward along the coast, eventually making their way to Byzantium (modern Istanbul).

According to Xenophon himself, it was his own leadership, strategic acumen, and motivational speeches that kept the army united and focused on their ultimate goal: returning home.

However, there is surely a lot of bias and personal aggrandizement at the centre of every paragraph of his account. Regardless, it is a rare glimpse into a real-life drama.

It also records invaluable details of the geography, politics, and cultures of the regions they passed through. 

After settling in Scillus, near Olympia, in around 394 BCE, Xenophon engaged in writing and reflection, which was when he produced many of his most significant works.

He wrote on a surprisingly extensive range of subjects. His close association with Socrates clearly influenced his thinking, as Xenophon documented his mentor’s teachings in works like the "Memorabilia" and the "Apology of Socrates."

As a result, he offered a unique perspective on Socratic philosophy, which is distinct from that of Plato. 

During his time in exile, Xenophon also continued to be politically curious. His work "The Hellenica", aimed to continue from where Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian War" left off, and chronicles the history of Greece from 411 to 362 BCE.

In it, he provides a firsthand account of the political changes and upheavals of the time. Perhaps his most curious work is known as the "Cyropaedia": an idealized biography of Cyrus the Great as the model of a virtuous ruler.

This work blends history and philosophy together, which had an impact both on ancient and modern political thought.

Consequently, Xenophon contributed significantly to both political theory and the understanding of Socratic philosophy. 

Any account of Xenophon’s works cannot ignore the "Oeconomicus": a book about how to manage a household and a farm.

Strangely enough, this text is presented as a Socratic dialogue, which explores the principles of effective domestic administration and economic self-sufficiency.

This odd work is actually a wonderful example of how Xenophon could blend practical advice with philosophical inquiry, which is evidence of his versatility as a writer and thinker. 

Xenophon believed that effective leadership required a combination of practical skills and moral integrity. In his writings, particularly in "Cyropaedia," he illustrated these principles through the character of Cyrus the Great.

Xenophon emphasized the importance of leading by example, arguing that a leader's personal virtues would inspire loyalty and respect among their followers.

Perhaps this is why he talks about it so much in his account of the retreat of the Ten Thousand. In the character of himself, he demonstrated these traits, making swift decisions in the face of adversity and motivating his troops to persevere.

In his view, a good leader needed to be both a strategist and a motivator, capable of maintaining morale while navigating complex challenges.  

This also explains why he wrote the "Oeconomicus". The advice he offered to the household could be read as general advice to a city or a country.

In both cases, he believed that good oversight started with the effective administration of one's own household. By ensuring that economic and social structures functioned smoothly, a leader could create a stable and prosperous community.  

Finally, his reflections on leadership appear frequently in his account of historical events in "Hellenica." Here, Xenophon analyzed the actions of various Greek leaders, during which he focuses on their individual successes and failures.

As a result, he emphasized the impact of leadership on the fortunes of states and armies. In his view, the qualities of leaders were directly linked to the outcomes of political and military endeavors.

Ultimately, this connection between personal virtue and public success was a recurring theme in his work. It reinforced his overarching belief in the importance of moral and practical leadership. 

Sadly, Xenophon’s fortunes changed when Sparta lost the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE, leading to his expulsion from Scillus.

With the fall of his Spartan patrons, Xenophon moved to Corinth where he continued his literary endeavors. Many historians believe that it was here that he completed his works such as "Hellenica" and "Memorabilia".

As he grew older, Xenophon wanted to ensure that future generations would benefit from his experiences and reflections.

The final years of Xenophon's life were spent in relative obscurity. He died around 354 BCE, just two years after the birth of Alexander the Great.  

Over 2000 years later, we are still reading his works and learning from his experiences as a soldier, historian, and philosopher.

In universities in countries around the world, in countless languages, Xenophon works continue to offer timeless insights into leadership, history, and the human condition.

No doubt, he would have been very pleased to know that his legacy has endured, as he had always hoped it would.