The chaos of AD 193: When there were five different emperors of Rome in one year

The backdrop of the Year of the Five Emperors was set against the declining years of Emperor Commodus' rule, which ended abruptly on December 31, 192 AD, when he was strangled by his wrestling partner and other conspirators.

Commodus' death ended the relatively stable period of the Antonine Dynasty and thrust Rome into a power vacuum.

Commodus had become increasingly autocratic and capricious. However, his assassination left a power vacuum that the existing structures of the Roman state were ill-prepared to fill, given the erosion of traditional senatorial authority under his reign and the emperor's increasing reliance on the Praetorian Guard.

Upon the death of Commodus, the Roman Empire found its new emperor in the person of Pertinax, a respected senator with a reputation for discipline and integrity.

His rise to the throne on January 1, 193 AD, was a moment of potential renewal for Rome.

Pertinax, born to a freed slave and having climbed the ranks through military and administrative roles, was a stark contrast to his predecessor.

His vision for the empire was one of moral reform and financial austerity, aimed at repairing the excesses of Commodus' rule.

He immediately began implementing stringent economic measures, cutting back on the imperial household's expenses, and taking steps to replenish the state's depleted treasury.

These measures, though fiscally prudent, were unpopular with the beneficiaries of the previous regime's largesse, particularly the Praetorian Guard, who had been promised a hefty donative, a form of bribe for their allegiance, which Pertinax could not fully deliver due to the empire's strained finances.

The emperor's attempt to instill discipline within the Praetorian Guard further eroded his support among the soldiers.

His reforms, which aimed to restore the dignity and order of the Roman state, were seen as an affront to the privileged position the Guard had enjoyed.

The tension reached its peak on March 28, 193 AD, when a contingent of the Guard invaded the imperial palace. Pertinax, facing his assailants, attempted to reason with them, offering to abdicate if his life was spared.

However, his pleas fell on deaf ears, and he was assassinated in the palace just 86 days after taking power.

Following the assassination of Pertinax on March 28, 193 AD, the Praetorian Guard, who had orchestrated the murder, declared the throne of the world's most powerful empire was up for sale to the highest bidder.

On March 193 AD, Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator of considerable ambition but little political acumen, emerged as the victor of this unprecedented and disgraceful auction.

He offered an immense sum, promising 25,000 sesterces to each soldier of the Guard, effectively purchasing the empire.

Julianus' rule was immediately mired in crisis. The public was outraged by the transaction that had made him emperor, and his authority was unrecognized in many quarters of the empire.

The Senate, coerced by the Praetorian Guard, acknowledged Julianus, but this acceptance was hollow, as the senatorial class was deeply ashamed and disturbed by the proceedings.

The legitimacy of his rule was further compromised by the swift condemnation from the legions stationed in the provinces, who had declared their own generals as emperors, setting the stage for civil war.

The reign of Didius Julianus lasted a mere 66 days. During this brief period, he attempted to win public favor by declaring games and public distributions, but these efforts did nothing to quell the disdain of the Roman populace or the disapproval of the military.

His position became untenable when Septimius Severus, having secured his power base in Pannonia, marched on Rome.

Severus was declared emperor by the Senate on June 1, 193 AD, as they sought to align with the incoming power.

Julianus was abandoned by those who had sold him the throne; the Praetorian Guard, seeing the tide turn, withdrew their support.

Didius Julianus was executed on June 1, 193 AD, an emperor without an empire, his brief tenure a cautionary tale of the perils of power obtained by wealth rather than merit. 

Septimius Severus, whose rule would eventually restore a measure of stability to the Roman Empire.

He had been proclaimed emperor by his troops in Carnuntum on April 9, 193 AD, shortly after the assassination of Pertinax.

Severus, a native of Leptis Magna in the Roman province of Africa, was at that time the governor of Upper Pannonia.

Recognizing the gravity of the situation in Rome, where Didius Julianus had bought the imperial title, Severus marched his legions towards the capital with remarkable speed.

His campaign was not merely a military maneuver but also a political statement; he aimed to present himself as the avenger of Pertinax and the restorer of dignity to the Roman state.

By the time he reached Rome, the Senate, aware of his approach and the inevitable outcome, declared him emperor on June 1, 193 AD, effectively sealing the fate of Julianus who was executed on the same day.

Severus' entry into Rome was not marked by the usual violence that accompanied such transitions.

He disbanded the Praetorian Guard, the force that had so flagrantly sold the throne, and replaced it with his own loyal troops from his Danubian legions.

He then set about consolidating his position. His immediate concern was the other claimants to the throne: Pescennius Niger, whom he considered his main rival, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, whom he initially acknowledged as Caesar, a subordinate co-emperor, to secure his western flank.

After the murder of Pertinax and the disgraceful auctioning of the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus, Niger was proclaimed emperor by the legions under his command in the Eastern provinces in April 193 AD.

His base of power was in Antioch, one of the empire's most important and wealthiest cities, which provided a strong strategic and economic foundation for his claim to the throne.

Niger's claim was supported by his reputation as a competent administrator and military leader, and he was seen by many as a stabilizing figure capable of restoring order.

However, his bid for power put him in direct conflict with Septimius Severus, who had secured his position in Rome and was recognized by the Senate.

Severus, not one to share power, declared war on Niger, marking the beginning of a civil conflict that would determine the future leadership of the Roman Empire.

The civil war that followed was fought on multiple fronts. Severus first directed his campaign eastward against Niger, whom he defeated in a series of battles culminating in the Battle of Issus in 194 AD. 

The defeat of Pescennius Niger had significant repercussions for the Eastern provinces.

Severus punished the cities and legions that had supported Niger, reorganizing the East to ensure such a challenge to imperial authority would not arise again. 

As the governor of Britain, Albinus was a man of considerable military might and political influence.

In the early stages of the conflict following the death of Pertinax, Severus sought to secure Albinus's loyalty by naming him Caesar, a title that implied he was Severus's successor.

This political maneuver was designed to ensure Albinus's neutrality while Severus dealt with other rivals, particularly Pescennius Niger in the East.

However, the alliance between Severus and Albinus was tenuous and ultimately short-lived.

As Severus consolidated his power after the defeat of Niger in 194 AD, it became clear that he had no intention of sharing authority.

Albinus, recognizing the threat to his own ambitions, declared himself Augustus in 195 AD, claiming imperial authority and openly challenging Severus.

The conflict between Albinus and Severus culminated in the Battle of Lugdunum, in what is now Lyon, France, on February 19, 197 AD.

It was one of the largest and bloodiest battles in Roman history, with heavy casualties on both sides.

Despite initial successes, Albinus's forces were ultimately defeated by the military skill and strategic planning of Severus.

In the aftermath of the battle, Albinus took his own life to avoid capture. His death marked the end of the civil wars that had followed the assassination of Commodus.

In the wake of his victory, Severus took measures to prevent such challenges to imperial authority in the future.

He purged the Senate of Albinus's supporters and restructured the command of the legions to ensure loyalty to the emperor. 

The rapid succession of emperors in 193 AD exposed the fragility of the imperial system and the extent to which the power of the throne was subject to the whims of the military.

The civil wars that ensued not only drained the empire's resources but also set a dangerous precedent for military intervention in political succession.

He expanded the imperial bureaucracy, filling its ranks with his own supporters, often from outside the traditional senatorial class.

This move diminished the influence and authority of the Senate, a trend that would continue in the following centuries.

Severus' reign marked the beginning of the Severan Dynasty, which would rule until 235 AD. 

Severus embarked on numerous building projects, including the renovation of the Roman Forum and the construction of the famous Arch of Septimius Severus, which still stands today.

These projects not only served to legitimize his rule but also stimulated the economy and reaffirmed Rome's status as the heart of the empire.

However, the legacy of the Year of the Five Emperors was not entirely positive.

The civil wars had wreaked havoc on the provinces, with many cities suffering from the destruction of the conflict.

The increased reliance on and privileging of the military would also have long-term consequences, as it encouraged future generals to vie for the throne, leading to a cycle of military coups and imperial assassinations that would eventually contribute to the empire's decline.