Catherine the Great: A tale of political ambition, forbidden love, and scandalous decisions

The woman who would become Catherine the Great was born on May 2, 1729, in Stettin, Prussia (modern Szczecin in Poland) with the name Sophia Augusta Frederica.

She was the daughter of a minor German prince, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, and his wife Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp.

Her family, though noble, was not particularly wealthy or influential at the time.

Regardless, Sophia's education was typical of the nobility of her time, focusing on developing her abilities languages, literature, and religion, which was intended to improve her chances of securing a good marriage later in life.

However, her intelligence, curiosity, and ambition set her apart from an early age.

Apparently, her governess described her as a bright and determined child, qualities that would serve her well in the years to come.

Despite their lack of wealth, Catherine's family had significant connections, which her mother, Johanna, effectively used to secure a royal marriage for her daughter.

Specifically, Johanna's familial ties to the Romanov dynasty of Russia and her connections at the Russian court played a crucial role in arranging a marriage partner.

In 1744, when Sophia was about 15 years old, she became engaged to Grand Duke Peter of Russia.

The engagement had been arranged by Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who brought Peter from Germany to Russia and proclaimed him the heir to the Russian throne.

The prospect of such a marriage was both an exciting opportunity and a daunting challenge for the young Sophia.

She would have to leave her homeland and adapt to a new culture, language, and religion.

Upon her marriage to Peter III on August 21, 1745, Sophia Augusta Frederica adopted the new Russian name Ekaterina Alexeievna (Catherine Alexeyevna), which was meant to be a sign of her willingness to adopt Russian customs.

Initially, Catherine was perceived as a foreigner with little influence in her new country.

However, for the first few years of her marriage, she tried hard to learn the complexities of the Russian court as quickly as she could.

She officially converted to Russian Orthodox Christian religion and dedicated time to learning the Russian language.

Catherine's keen interest in Enlightenment philosophy also began to shape her vision for her time in Russia.

When Empress Elizabeth of Russia died in December 1761, Catherine's husband, Peter III, was crowed Tsar of Russia in January 1762.

Catherine then became the 'empress consort'. As his wife, she was the Tsarina but did not have any ruling power. 

Once in power, Peter began making a series of unpopular decisions that quickly alienated key segments of the Russian elite and military.

In particular, he greatly admired Frederick the Great of Prussia, who was the ruler of one of Russia's traditional enemies.

Under Empress Elizabeth, Russia was part of a coalition with Austria and France, that was aiming to diminish Prussia's power and regain territories such as Silesia as part of the Seven Years' War.

To the shock of his own people, Peter officially withdrew Russia from the Seven Years' War and signed a peace treaty with Prussia: an event known as the Second Miracle of the House of Brandenburg.

Then, Peter announced that Prussia would become an ally of Russia. This was seen as an act of betrayal by many in Russia

Meanwhile, his attempts to modernize the army, including the introduction Prussian-style uniforms, created further discontent.

At home, Peter implemented reforms that were ahead of their time, such as proclaiming religious freedom, abolishing the secret police, and outlawing the killing of serfs by landowners.

However, these reforms were unpopular with the nobility and Orthodox Church, as they were seen as bizarre and unpredictable.

Furthermore, Peter's personality was considered to be very problematic.

He was known for being quite abrasive and was described as having a weak character and many vices.

For example, he would often announce random military drills for his servants and engaging in late-night drinking parties, which made life in the palace difficult for those around him.

Catherine was very aware of the growing dissatisfaction with her husband's rule, even though he had only been on the throne for six months.

So, she began to cultivate alliances with key figures within the Russian court and military.

In fact, her romantic relationship with Grigory Orlov, who was a charismatic and influential military officer in the Russian army, became an important part of securing support for to overthrow her husband.

On the morning of June 28, 1762, Catherine suddenly delivered a speech to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky Regiment, one of the most influential military units in Russia.

She asked them to protect her from her husband, Peter III. Once she was sure of their support, Catherine travelled to the Semenovsky Barracks in St. Petersburg, where she was quickly proclaimed Empress by the troops.

Meanwhile, Peter III was unaware of the growing threat, as he was at his summer residence in Oranienbaum.

When news finally reached him of what had happened, he was caught off guard and politically isolated.

By this point, Catherine had the support of the military, the nobility, and the church.

So, with no other option, on July 9, 1762, Peter was forced to abdicate the throne.

Soon after, he was taken into custody and imprisoned. His death followed a week later on the 17th of July, under mysterious circumstance.

While there was no definitive proof of Catherine’s involvement, suspicion lingered.

Catherine the Great's ascension to the throne was the beginning of a period of intense reform and modernization that would fundamentally reshape Russian governance and society.

She demonstrated a commitment to 'enlightened absolutism', a philosophy of how to rule a country that combined absolute monarchical power with progressive reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideals.

In fact, Catherine the Great maintained a lively correspondence with famous enlightenment philosopher, Voltaire, from 1763 until his death in 1778, in which they discussed politics, philosophy, and how leaders should rule their countries.

Based upon what she learnt, Catherine's vision for Russia was quite ambitious.

She wanted to transform a largely feudal society into a modern and enlightened state in the space of one generation.

One of the earliest and most significant steps at modernizing Russia was the attempt to fix the legal system.

Up until that point, the administration of government was very disorganized due to a history of inconsistent and contradictory laws implemented by various rulers.

In fact, many of Peter I's reforms were not properly recorded, leading to confusion and inefficiency.

Additionally, the legal system was criticized for a lack of uniformity and fairness.

Different courts existed for different social classes, and there was a need for more standardized procedures and equitable justice.

So, Catherine announced a Legislative Commission in 1767 to finally find solutions to these problems.

This commission brought together 564 delegates from across Russia, from various social classes, to draft a new legal code for the empire.

To guide the attendees to create a more rational and humane legal system, Catherine wrote a document called the Nakaz, or 'Instruction'.

This document drew heavily from the writings of Montesquieu and Cesare Beccaria in a call for laws that would be clear, apply equally to all, and that any punishment should fit the crime.

Most famously, it advocated the abolition of torture, which was still widely practiced in Russia at the time.

Catherine's reforms extended beyond the legal sphere, touching various aspects of Russian society.

In 1785, Catherine issued the Charter of the Nobility, which officially codified the privileges of the Russian aristocracy, granting them significant autonomy in exchange for loyalty to the crown.

Simultaneously, the Charter of the Towns sought to improve urban administration and governance.

In 1764, Catherine established the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens in St. Petersburg, the first state-funded school for girls in Russia, which aimed to educate the daughters of the nobility and promote Enlightenment values among the elite.

These reforms, while progressive in intent, often reinforced existing social divisions, reflecting the complexities and contradictions of Catherine's rule.

For example, it rejected the notion of serfs being treated as property, though Catherine stopped short of outright abolishing serfdom all together.

While Catherine expressed sympathy for the plight of the serfs and considered various measures to alleviate their condition, she was also mindful of the nobility's interests and the potential for unrest.

The delicate balance between reform and stability led to incremental changes rather than sweeping emancipation.

The question of serfdom loomed large during Catherine's reign, as it showed the tensions between her progressive ideals and the realities of changing Russian society.

However, to many in the lower classes, Catherine seemed to have failed them. In fact, the Charter to the Nobility reinforced the nobility's power over serfs.

The Nazak in particular was seen as radical by many of her contemporaries, especially due to its alignment with Enlightenment ideas that clashed with the traditional autocratic structure of Russia. 

Ultimately, in practical terms, the Legislative Commission failed to enact the sweeping legal reforms Catherine envisioned.

It disbanded in 1768, partly due to the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War, leaving many of her proposals unfulfilled.

Catherine the Great's reign also saw a series of ambitious military campaigns and strategic foreign policy decisions that expanded Russia's influence and territory.

Catherine's military campaigns were part of her desire to modernize and strengthen the Russian military.

Her significant financial investments in the navy, the reorganization of the army, and the establishment of military schools were part of a broader effort to transform Russia into a modern military power capable of competing with the leading European states.

One of the defining aspects of Catherine's foreign policy was her engagement with the Ottoman Empire.

The first was the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, which resulted in significant Russian victories and territorial gains, including access to the Black Sea and influence over the Crimean Khanate.

It concluded with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, which granted Russia important territorial gains and recognized the independence of the Crimean Khanate.

However, this independence was largely nominal, as Russia maintained significant control over Crimean affairs.

Catherine's foreign policy also extended to Central and Western Europe, most notably in her involvement in the partitioning of Poland.

The partitions were conducted in collaboration with Austria and Prussia and resulted in the dismemberment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

These divisions were then absorbed significant Polish territories into the Russian Empire.

While these actions were viewed by many contemporaries as a betrayal of Enlightenment principles, they reflected Catherine's realpolitik approach and her determination to secure Russia's western borders.

Then, in 1783, Catherine marched her troops into the Crimea and annexed it, which added it to her empire.

This not only gave Russia control of the Crimean Peninsula but also secured vital access to the Black Sea, a long-term geopolitical goal that had eluded previous Russian rulers.

Most importantly, it established a Russian naval presence in the Black Sea, which was crucial for trade and military purposes.

The annexation was celebrated in Russia, but it increased tensions with the Ottoman Empire and other European powers.

Then, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792, which culminated in the Treaty of Jassy in 1792, Russia’s affirmed its dominance in the Black Sea region and annexed more land in the Caucasus.

But not all was well in Russia. One of the largest and most dangerous uprisings Catherine the Great faced during her reign was led by Yemelyan Pugachev, a former Don Cossack.

He rose up in rebellion and attracted thousands of peasants, serfs, and soldiers who were dissatisfied with the harsh conditions imposed by the Russian Empire.

Pugachev claimed to be Peter III himself, Catherine’s deposed husband, and promised to end serfdom, distribute land to the peasants, and reduce the power of the nobility.

In the fall of 1773, Pugachev’s forces took the city of Kazan, which gave the rebels control over an important administrative center.

This was a genuine challenge to imperial authority. Meanwhile, Catherine's government was slow to respond initially, partly because the rebellion began in the remote regions along the Ural Mountains, far from the capital.

However, as the rebellion spread and the nature of the threat became clearer, and Catherine mobilized her forces to crush the uprising.

In response to the rebels’ victories, she sent General Michelson to lead a campaign against them.

The turning point came in early 1774, when Pugachev’s army began to suffer defeats at the hands of the government forces.

Although the rebellion had gained significant ground early on, the imperial army was better equipped and organized.

As a result, they gradually pushed Pugachev's forces back. In September of that year, Pugachev was captured by his own followers, who turned him over to the authorities in exchange for clemency.

Following his capture, the rebellion quickly collapsed, and on January 10, 1775, Pugachev was publicly executed in Moscow.

Unfortunately, during her time on the throne, Catherine's personal relationships were the focus of many international discussions.

At the beginning, questions were raised about her marriage to Peter III. It was clearly troubled from the start, as the two seemed to be incompatible and the two may have genuinely dislike each other.

While the marriage provided her with the opportunity to ascend to the Russian throne, it may have been a source of personal frustration and disappointment for Catherine.

As a result, Catherine had relationships with other men, including Grigory Orlov, who played a key role in the coup against Peter III.

Their affair began in the early 1760s when Orlov, who was an artillery officer at the time, met Catherine, who was then the Grand Duchess.

As a reward for his support in overthrowing her husband, Catherine bestowed upon Orlov significant titles and gifts, including the title of Count and the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg.

Catherine and Orlov's relationship lasted for about eleven years, during which Catherine was faithful to him.

However, in 1772, their relationship ended partly because Catherine discovered Orlov's infidelity.

Despite the end of their romantic involvement, the two remained close, and Catherine was reportedly distraught when Orlov died in 1783

However, one of the most significant relationships in Catherine's life was with Grigory Potemkin, a statesman, military leader, and her lover.

They began their personal relationship in the spring of 1774. Their romantic involvement is believed to have lasted intensely for about two years, during which time they were reportedly inseparable and exchanged numerous letters.

There is some evidence suggesting that they may have secretly married a few months after their relationship began, possibly in the summer or fall of 1774, or in early January 1775.

Despite the cooling of their romantic relationship, Catherine and Potemkin maintained a close and influential partnership throughout their lives, collaborating on political and military matter

Sadly, Catherine did not have a close connect with her son, Paul I. From Paul's early years, Catherine maintained a distant relationship with him.

As an infant, Paul was often neglected and isolated from his mother, primarily raised by Empress Elizabeth, who took him under her care.

As Paul grew older, a fierce rivalry developed between them. Paul believed he had a superior claim to the throne and coveted his mother's position.

Catherine, on the other hand, never fully trusted her son and did not allow him to share power or train in statecraft.

She even considered bypassing him in the line of succession in favor of his son, Alexander.

Despite a brief attempt at reconciliation after Paul's serious illness in 1771, their relationship remained strained.

Catherine kept Paul away from the Imperial Court, allowing him to reside at his private estates at Gatchina Palace.

She also took charge of raising Paul's sons, Alexander and Constantine, just as Empress Elizabeth had done with Paul, which further alienated him. 

Catherine the Great's rule, which lasted for 34 years, concluded with her sudden death on November 17, 1796.

On the morning of that day, Catherine had suffered a stroke and fell into a coma.

Despite the efforts of her physicians, she never regained consciousness and passed away later that evening.

Catherine's son, Paul I, succeeded her to the throne, and his rule saw a departure from many of Catherine's policies and approaches.

Paul openly reevaluated some of the reforms and initiatives that had introduced by his mother, which many thought was simply driven by spite and resentment.

In fact, he reversed many of her policies, including reinstating corporal punishment for soldiers and limiting the power of the nobility, which ultimately contributed to his assassination in 1801.

Today, Catherine is considered 'the Great' due to her significant contributions to Russia's political, cultural, and territorial expansion, as well as her efforts to modernize the nation.

Her reign (from 1762 to 1796) is often referred to as the Golden Age of the Russian Empire, during which she was personally responsible for transforming Russia into a major European power.