The complex and conflicted history of the Palestinian people before 1948

Archaeological evidence reveals that communities in this fertile region began cultivating crops and domesticating animals as early as 10,000 BCE.

Prehistoric inhabitants transitioned from nomadic lifestyles to more stable and organized societies and, over time, they developed essential tools and intricate pottery. 

Around 3000 BCE, the Canaanites emerged as one of the first distinct groups to inhabit the Levant.

Known for their skilled craftsmanship and vibrant trade networks, they established city-states such as Jericho and Byblos, which flourished as hubs of economic and cultural exchange.

The Canaanites practiced polytheistic religion and worshiped a pantheon of gods, including Baal and El. 

References to 'Philistia' and the Philistines appear prominently in ancient Egyptian and biblical texts.

Originating from the Aegean region, the Philistines arrived in the Levant around the 12th century BCE, during a period of widespread migration and upheaval.

Known for their advanced knowledge of metallurgy and military techniques, they established fortified cities such as Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Gaza.

The Philistines became significant rivals to the Israelites, as described in biblical accounts of figures like Samson and King David. 

Under Egyptian rule, which began in the second millennium BCE, Palestine became an integral part of the pharaohs' efforts to control trade and influence in the Levant.

Egyptian inscriptions, such as those of Thutmose III, detailed military campaigns in the region during the 15th century BCE.

By establishing garrisons and administrative centers, the Egyptians secured their access to vital resources and trade routes.

The influence of Egyptian religion and art became evident in the material culture of the local population, including the adoption of hieroglyphic motifs and burial practices. 

Subsequently, Assyrian dominance reshaped Palestine during the early first millennium BCE, as rulers like Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II sought to consolidate their empire.

From the late 8th century BCE, the Assyrians implemented policies of conquest, forced relocation, and tribute collection.

Cities such as Samaria and Lachish were targeted for their strategic and economic value.

Inscriptions and reliefs, including those depicting the siege of Lachish, reveal the intensity of Assyrian military campaigns.

Their administrative control and imposition of vassal kingships further integrated Palestine into a larger imperial framework. 

Under Babylonian rule, beginning with Nebuchadnezzar II's conquests in the 6th century BCE, Palestine experienced further upheaval.

The Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE resulted in the exile of the Judean elite and the loss of the First Temple.

This period of Babylonian control introduced new cultural and economic practices, which influenced local populations. 

Then, during the Persian Empire’s control, which began after Cyrus the Great's conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, Persian rulers incorporated the region into the satrapy of Eber-Nari, allowing a degree of local autonomy under leaders such as Nehemiah.

The rebuilding of the Second Temple, supported by Persian policies, reinvigorated religious and social life in Jerusalem.

Trade networks flourished under Persian administration, connecting Palestine to larger economic systems across the empire. 

Following Alexander the Great’s conquests in the late 4th century BCE, Palestine came under Hellenistic influence, first under the Ptolemies and later the Seleucids.

Greek culture permeated urban centers, where gymnasia, theaters, and Hellenistic art became prominent.

However, the imposition of Hellenistic practices provoked resistance among traditionalist populations, culminating in the Maccabean Revolt of 167–160 BCE.

This rebellion, led by Judas Maccabeus, resulted in the establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom, which asserted Jewish autonomy and expanded its territorial reach. 

The Roman conquest of Palestine began in 63 BCE when Pompey the Great intervened in a Hasmonean succession dispute.

Over time, Roman rule restructured the region, introducing new administrative systems and integrating Palestine into the empire's vast trade networks.

Herod the Great, who was appointed king by Rome in 37 BCE, initiated a series of building projects, including the expansion of the Second Temple and the construction of Caesarea Maritima. 

Following the division of the Roman Empire, Palestine became a key region within the Byzantine Empire.

As a result of Constantine the Great's conversion to Christianity in the early 4th century CE, the empire's policies increasingly favored the Christian faith.

Palestine's religious significance grew during this period, particularly through the construction of important Christian sites.

The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem were built thanks to imperial sponsorship, attracting pilgrims from across the empire.

This led to economic benefits for the region while fostering its reputation as a center of Christian worship.

Byzantine authorities reinforced these developments by establishing bishoprics and supporting local clergy, which strengthened the administrative and religious structure of Christianity in the region. 

The arrival of Islam in the 7th century marked a transformative period for Palestine.

Motivated by the military campaigns of the Rashidun Caliphate, Muslim armies under figures like Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As transformed the political structure of the Levant.

Jerusalem was surrendered to Caliph Umar in 638 CE following a negotiated agreement that preserved the rights of Christians and Jews.

This led to a relatively peaceful transition of power and the integration of Islamic power.

Under the Umayyad Caliphate, based in Damascus, Palestine experienced further cultural and architectural change.

The construction of the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE by Caliph Abd al-Malik highlighted Jerusalem’s growing importance in Islamic tradition, reinforcing its position as a sacred city within the Muslim world. 

During the early Islamic era, Jerusalem developed into a vital religious center for Muslims.

As a consequence of its association with the Prophet Muhammad’s Isra and Mi'raj, the city was revered as the third holiest site in Islam.

The Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque became focal points of religious devotion and architectural achievement, reflecting the Umayyads' commitment to solidifying Islamic identity in the region.

This development also attracted scholars, pilgrims, and traders, which enhanced Jerusalem’s role as a thriving urban center. 

Following the First Crusade in 1099, Crusader forces captured Jerusalem and established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which was ruled by European nobles.

The conquest disrupted existing social structures, as many local Muslims and Jews were displaced or faced violent persecution.

Christians from Europe settled in newly constructed fortifications, such as Krak des Chevaliers and Belvoir Castle, which were built to secure Crusader control over strategic locations.

Meanwhile, surviving Muslim and Jewish communities adapted to the changing political order by paying taxes or working in subordinate roles within Crusader-controlled territories.

Also, the influx of European settlers introduced new cultural and agricultural practices, which influenced local economies and created tensions between communities. 

Following this period of Crusader dominance, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, known as Saladin, led a united Muslim effort to reclaim Jerusalem and surrounding regions.

His victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 dealt a decisive blow to Crusader forces and paved the way for the recapture of Jerusalem later that year.

Saladin's policies toward the city contrasted with the earlier Crusader sack, as he allowed Christians to leave safely or remain under Muslim rule.

This approach aimed to stabilize the region and facilitate cooperation among its diverse inhabitants.

In fact, Saladin’s reconquest inspired a series of retaliatory Crusades, but his leadership solidified Muslim control over much of Palestine and reshaped the region’s politics decades. 

As a result, the social and economic life in Palestine experienced both disruption and transformation.

Trade routes that connected the Mediterranean to inland regions remained active, sustaining the movement of goods and people.

Local economies adapted to shifting political realities, as Crusader rulers imposed feudal systems that relied on taxation and agricultural production.

Following Saladin’s reconquest, the reestablishment of Muslim rule reintegrated Palestine into the broader Islamic world, enhancing its trade connections with Egypt and Syria.

This renewed stability allowed urban centers such as Jerusalem, Acre, and Hebron to recover and thrive, supporting diverse populations that included Muslims, Christians, and Jews. 

Under Ottoman rule, which began in 1517 following Sultan Selim I's conquest of Palestine, the region was integrated into a vast imperial system that prioritized efficient administration.

Palestine was divided into sanjaks, or districts, which were part of the larger province of Damascus.

Each sanjak was governed by officials who were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining order, and ensuring loyalty to the Ottoman sultan.

This administrative structure relied heavily on local elites, such as the al-Husayni and al-Nashashibi families, who played intermediary roles between the Ottoman state and the population.

The imposition of Islamic law coexisted with customary practices, allowing the Ottomans to manage the region with relative stability.

Trade routes that connected Palestine to cities like Damascus, Cairo, and Constantinople ensured its economic relevance within the empire. 

Throughout Ottoman rule, demographic and land ownership patterns in Palestine underwent significant transformations.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, population growth in rural and urban areas increased demand for agricultural land.

Ottoman land reforms, particularly the 1858 Land Code, sought to formalize property ownership by requiring landholders to register their lands.

This led to unintended consequences, as wealthier urban elites and absentee landlords acquired large tracts of land, often dispossessing smaller farmers.

As a result of these changes, a growing number of rural Palestinians became tenant farmers, reliant on landlords for access to the land.

The influx of immigrants, including Jewish settlers under early Zionist movements in the late 19th century, introduced additional complexities to land ownership and local demographics, sparking debates over land use and identity. 

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of Arab nationalism challenged Ottoman authority in Palestine and across the Arab world.

Motivated by the decline of the empire and the spread of nationalist ideas, Arab intellectuals and activists called for greater autonomy or independence.

Figures such as Rashid Rida and other leaders of the Arab Awakening articulated visions of unity and resistance to Ottoman centralization.

In Palestine, tensions grew as Arab leaders criticized Ottoman policies that seemed to prioritize the interests of other regions.

This dissatisfaction was compounded by economic struggles and land disputes.

During World War I, these tensions culminated in the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918, which further destabilized Ottoman control.

As the empire dissolved in 1917, British forces occupied Palestine, saw the end of Ottoman rule and the beginning of a new and uncertain chapter in its history. 

During the British Mandate period, the Balfour Declaration of 1917 changed the trajectory of Palestine’s future.

Issued as a statement of British support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, it generated both hope among Zionist movements and alarm among the Arab population.

As a consequence of this declaration, waves of Jewish immigration to Palestine increased, supported by organizations like the Jewish Agency.

This led to significant demographic and economic changes, as Jewish settlers purchased land and established agricultural communities.

The Arab population perceived these developments as a threat to their rights and autonomy. 

Due to these tensions, Arab resistance grew in response to both British policies and Zionist activities.

The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of Arab political organizations and nationalist leaders, such as Haj Amin al-Husseini, who advocated for Palestinian self-determination.

This resistance culminated in events like the Arab Revolt of 1936–1939, a widespread uprising against British rule and Zionist expansion.

As a result of the revolt, the British government responded with measures to suppress dissent, but it also issued the White Paper of 1939, which limited Jewish immigration.

This policy angered Zionist groups, further complicating British efforts to maintain control.

Meanwhile, the Arab population’s sense of a distinct national identity deepened, as the struggle against perceived foreign domination united disparate communities. 

As a result, the Palestinians are a people who are the descendants of the various populations who inhabited the Levant over millennia, including ancient Canaanites, Philistines, and other Semitic groups.

Over centuries, these communities adopted languages, religions, and customs that reflected the influences of successive empires, such as the Romans, Byzantines, and Arabs.

By the early Islamic period, Arabic became the dominant language, and Islam became the primary religion for much of the population, which meant that Palestinian identity increasingly intertwined with broader Arab and Islamic culture. 

During the Ottoman period, Palestinians lived as part of a vast empire and developed a distinct sense of belonging tied to the towns, villages, and agricultural lands they occupied.

Social and economic practices revolved around agriculture, crafts, and trade, which were essential to their livelihoods.

The term ‘Palestinian’ was often used in a geographical sense, referring to inhabitants of the region without differentiating religious or ethnic backgrounds.

However, the socio-political changes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries began to transform this identity into a more cohesive national consciousness. 

As a result of the British Mandate and the Balfour Declaration, Palestinian identity evolved in response to growing tensions over land and self-determination.

They began to organize politically, developing nationalist movements that sought to preserve their rights and heritage.

The term ‘Palestinian’ became a marker of both territorial and cultural identity, uniting Arabs in their resistance to foreign domination and their efforts to maintain control over their ancestral lands. 

In modern times, Palestinians are broadly defined as the Arab inhabitants of historic Palestine, which includes present-day Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza Strip, as well as those in the diaspora.

Their identity is closely tied to shared experiences of displacement and resistance, which is known as the Nakba, or ‘catastrophe’, that occurred during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

This displacement shaped the Palestinian diaspora, which includes refugees in neighboring Arab states and beyond.

Today, Palestinians remain a distinct people with a unique cultural heritage, defined by traditions in music, art, cuisine, and storytelling, which connect them to their historical homeland and preserve their collective memory across generations.