Who were the Jacobins, the ruthless radicals of the French Revolution?

The group that became the Jacobins started as a gathering known as the ‘Society of the Friends of the Constitution’ and it was established by deputies of the Estates-General in 1789.

By meeting in the former Dominican convent of the Jacobins in Paris, the group adopted the name ‘Jacobins’. The club's early meetings focused on discussing revolutionary ideas and organizing political actions.

They were initially led by Georges Danton, who consistently advocated for the establishment of the Republic. 

In the spring of 1790, the club opened its membership to non-deputies, which significantly expanded its influence among the people.

Its new members wanted to defend the revolution and promote democratic principles, particularly those that emphasized equality and civic virtue.

Soon after the fall of the monarchy in 1792, the Jacobins gained much great prominence. By 1791, the Jacobins had established a network of affiliated societies throughout France.

This helped them disseminate their radical agenda and generate public support. 

The club's initial goals included the establishment of a republic, the defense of the revolution, and the eradication of counter-revolutionary forces.

Central to their beliefs was the concept of égalité, or equality, which they viewed as essential for a just society. This principle extended to both political and social reforms and the abolition of feudal privileges.

Also, the sought liberté, or liberty, which is how they intended to ensure freedom from tyranny and the establishment of a government by the people. 

In order to achieve these ideals, the Jacobins adopted the term la patrie en danger, meaning "the fatherland in danger," to rally citizens against internal and external threats.

They believed that the revolution required the active participation and vigilance of every citizen. As a result, the Jacobins were advocates of sans-culottes, referring to the working-class militants who supported radical change.

The Jacobins argued that every citizen needed to demonstrate moral integrity and selflessness. If individuals could do this, it would be a vital component for the success of the republic. 

The Jacobins' rise to power began in earnest during the early 1790s, amid the escalating turmoil of the French Revolution.

In August 1792, a crowd of revolutionaries, including many Jacobins, stormed the Tuileries Palace and overthrew the monarchy. In its place, they established the National Convention.

Then, on September 20, 1792, the National Convention convened for the first time. In the first session, it formally abolished the monarchy and established the French Republic.

It didn’t take long for the Jacobins to become a dominant force within the Convention. However, they faced opposition from the Girondins, a more moderate faction.

This conflict would develop into an intense political rivalry.  

The Jacobins' control was further solidified with the formation of the Committee of Public Safety in April 1793. This body was tasked with protecting the revolution from internal and external threats.

In fact, it became the de facto executive government. A man called Maximilian Robespierre became the leader of the Committee of Public Safety.

His influence began to steer the revolution toward more radical measures. By the summer of 1793, the Committee of Public Safety had assumed near-dictatorial powers.

In June 1793, the Jacobins, led by figures like Robespierre and Danton, orchestrated the arrest of leading Girondins, which then allowed them to consolidate their power. 

On September 5, 1793, the National Convention declared "Terror as the order of the day," which triggered the official beginning of a bloody period known as the ‘Reign of Terror’.

It would last from September 1793 to July 1794. During this time, the Jacobins implemented harsh measures to suppress dissent and eliminate enemies of the revolution.

The Revolutionary Tribunal, established by the National Convention, conducted a series of trials that resulted in increasing numbers of public executions.  

Thousands of people, including former allies, were executed under the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was established to try those accused of counter-revolutionary activities.

Under Robespierre’s direction, the committee implemented the Law of Suspects on September 17, 1793. This law broadened the definition of counter-revolutionary activities, leading to the arrest of tens of thousands of people.

Between September 1793 and July 1794, approximately 300,000 individuals were detained under suspicion of opposing the revolution. 

The executions, often carried out by the guillotine, reached alarming numbers. In Paris alone, over 2,500 people were executed during the Terror.

Throughout France, the total number of executions ranged from 16,000 to 40,000, with some estimates suggesting even higher figures.

As a consequence, the daily life of citizens was filled with fear and suspicion, as accusations could lead to swift and deadly consequences.

Prominent victims of the Terror included both revolutionaries and perceived counter-revolutionaries.  

Georges Danton, once a leading Jacobin, was executed in April 1794 for opposing the extreme measures of the Committee of Public Safety.

Similarly, Camille Desmoulins, a journalist and ally of Danton, met the same fate. Marie Antoinette, the former queen, was also a notable victim, executed on October 16, 1793.

In addition to high-profile executions, ordinary citizens bore the brunt of the Terror. The sans-culottes, initially supporters of the Jacobins, found themselves increasingly targeted as the definition of "enemy" expanded.

The Revolutionary Tribunal operated with little regard for due process, often convicting individuals based on flimsy evidence or mere suspicion. 

By mid-1794, the Reign of Terror had created widespread fear and discontent across France. The extreme measures, orchestrated by Robespierre, alienated many former allies and intensified opposition within the revolutionary government.

One significant factor was the growing disillusionment among the sans-culottes and other radical supporters. Initially, they had backed the Jacobins due to their promises of social and economic reforms.

However, the relentless executions and perceived betrayal of revolutionary ideals caused a shift in support. By summer 1794, the public’s patience with the extreme violence of the Terror had worn thin and they wanted change. 

Moreover, within the National Convention, factions began to coalesce against Robespierre and his close associates.

Fearful of becoming the next targets, many deputies who had once supported the Jacobins now viewed them as a threat.

The Reign of Terror reached its peak in the summer of 1794. The Law of 22 Prairial, enacted on June 10, 1794, which had further expedited the trial process, led to a surge in executions.

In the month of June alone, over 1,300 people were executed in Paris, exemplifying the intensification of the Terror. This law, seen as an overreach, led many to believe that their lives were in jeopardy under Jacobin rule. 

Tensions culminated on July 27, 1794, known as 9 Thermidor in the revolutionary calendar. On this day, members of the National Convention, led by men like Paul Barras and Jean-Lambert Tallien, arrested Robespierre and his allies, including Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and Georges Couthon.

This swift action was driven by a desperate desire to end the bloodshed and restore some semblance of stability.

Robespierre and his supporters attempted to resist but were quickly overwhelmed. On July 28, 1794, Robespierre and 21 of his closest followers were executed by guillotine.

This effectively ended the Jacobins’ dominance and brought an abrupt halt to the Reign of Terror.  

The subsequent period, known as the Thermidorian Reaction, saw a significant shift in the revolutionary government’s approach.

The new leaders aimed to dismantle the mechanisms of the Terror by releasing prisoners and repealing the harsh laws enacted by the Jacobins.

In the months following the fall of the Jacobins, the revolution entered a more moderate phase. The Committee of Public Safety lost much of its power, and the National Convention moved to restore order and address the economic and social issues that had fueled the revolution.

The fall of the Jacobins was used as an example of the dangers of unchecked radicalism.