1917: The year of turning tides in World War One

At the start of 1917, the situation on the Western Front was grim and static. Both the Allies and the Central Powers were locked in a brutal stalemate, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss border.

After years of fighting, neither side had made significant territorial gains, and the frontlines had barely shifted.

In particular, the Battle of the Somme in 1916 had cost over a million casualties, with the British losing 420,000 men, the French 200,000, and the Germans 500,000, but it achieved little more than a few miles of ground.

Trench warfare dominated the battlefield, and soldiers faced constant artillery bombardments, gas attacks, and unsanitary conditions.

Morale on both sides had begun to suffer as the war dragged into its third year with no clear end in sight.

On the Eastern Front, the situation was different but equally dire. Russia had been battered by a series of defeats, particularly in the disastrous campaigns of 1914 and 1915.

The Brusilov Offensive in 1916 had offered some hope for the Allies, inflicting over one million casualties on the Austro-Hungarian forces.

However, by early 1917, the Russian Army was in a state of collapse, suffering from poor leadership, low morale, and severe shortages of supplies.

The harsh Russian winter had further drained the already struggling soldiers, and widespread discontent simmered among the ranks.

While the German and Austro-Hungarian armies remained entrenched, they were also worn down by the heavy losses sustained in previous campaigns.

The political instability in Russia grew rapidly, threatening to bring the entire front to a breaking point.

In response to the technological advancements and strategic demands of World War I, particularly after the costly Battle of the Somme, German leadership, under Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff, recognized the need for a stronger defensive position to counter Allied offensives.

As a result, he proposed the 'Hindenburg Line', also known as the Siegfried Position, in late 1916.

It was designed to create a more defensible position and conserve vital military resources.

The line consisted of multiple layers of defenses, including deep trenches, concrete bunkers, and extensive barbed wire entanglements.

It stretched from the North Sea to Verdun and was intended to slow down any Allied advances.

By March 1917, German forces had strategically retreated to this fortified position, which was considered nearly impenetrable.

In fact, the Hindenburg Line proved effective in delaying the Allies and became a key element in the German defensive strategy.

In 1917, the French launched the Nivelle Offensive with the ambitious goal of breaking through German defenses on the Western Front and securing a decisive victory within 48 hours.

General Robert Nivelle, who had earned recognition for his tactics at Verdun, believed that a combination of saturation bombardment and aggressive infantry assaults could quickly overcome the German positions.

Nivelle planned to capitalize on French and British numerical superiority, and his confidence in a rapid victory drove the strategy.

Following the German withdrawal to the newly constructed Hindenburg Line, the offensive shifted focus to the German positions on the Chemin des Dames ridge, which were part of a new defensive setup following the German retreat.

When the offensive was launched on April 16, 1917, it quickly ran into serious problems.

German forces had time to reinforce their defenses and implement effective defense-in-depth strategies, which significantly blunted the French assault.

As a result, the Nivelle Offensive failed to achieve its intended breakthrough, and the French suffered devastating casualties—over 120,000 men in the first days of fighting.

Despite the clear signs that the offensive was faltering, Nivelle persisted and refused to adjust his tactics.

By the end of the offensive, on May 9, the French had suffered over 187,000 casualties without any meaningful strategic gains.

The disastrous outcome, the high casualties, combined with a lack of progress and poor leadership, had shattered morale.

This led to widespread mutinies among French troops throughout May and June, with nearly half of the divisions on the Western Front refusing to take orders.

In response to the crisis, General Philippe Pétain was appointed to replace Nivelle as commander of the French forces.

He immediately worked to restore order by improving conditions for soldiers and adopting more cautious, defensive tactics.

His leadership helped stabilize the French front and rebuild the shattered confidence of the French Army.

While things looked grim for the Allies in early 1917, the United States' decision to enter the war offered them renewed hope.

One of the key factors driving U.S. involvement was Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917.

German U-boats began sinking American ships, disregarding neutral rights, which outraged the U.S. public and government.

The earlier sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 had already strained relations, but this renewed aggression left the U.S. with little choice but to consider intervention.

The situation was further escalated by the Zimmerman Telegram, in which Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico, promising to help it reclaim lost U.S. territories.

The revelation of this secret offer caused widespread anger in America, which pushed the country closer to war.

By 1917, the U.S. had become a key supplier of war materials and financial support to the Allies, and many feared the consequences of a German victory for American economic interests.

President Woodrow Wilson requested a declaration of war from Congress on April 2, 1917, which was approved on April 6.

However, it took several months before American forces were actively engaged in combat.

The U.S. military needed time to recruit, train, and transport troops to Europe.

The first significant deployment of American forces occurred in June 1917, but they did not engage in major combat operations until the spring of 1918. 

Regardless, the U.S. entry into the war provided the Allies with vital resources and fresh troops, boosting morale and shifting the balance of power in their favor.

The Allies first began their concerted attacks on the Hindenburg Line on April 9, at the Battle of Arras.

It was a British-led offensive aimed at relieving pressure on the French forces, who were still engaged in the Nivelle Offensive and to draw German troops away from that front.

Under the command of General Edmund Allenby, British forces launched an offensive along a 12-mile front near Arras.

The battle began with a powerful artillery bombardment, followed by a ground assault that saw Canadian forces capture the strategically important Vimy Ridge.

Initial progress was promising, with the Allies advancing up to 10 kilometers eastward, an unusual achievement in the context of trench warfare.

However, despite these early gains, the offensive eventually stalled as the Germans regrouped and reinforced their positions.

The well-prepared German defenses, combined with difficult terrain and the limitations of new tactics and equipment, prevented the British from achieving a decisive breakthrough.

The battle dragged on, and the fighting became increasingly costly for both sides.

By the time the battle ended on May 17, the British had suffered approximately 158,000 casualties, while the Germans incurred around 130,000 losses.

Although the Battle of Arras demonstrated the Allies' ability to coordinate large-scale attacks and employ new technologies, it ultimately failed to deliver a strategic victory or significantly alter the balance of power on the Western Front.

In May 1917, the British attempted another breakthrough at the Second Battle of Bullecourt, part of the larger Battle of Arras.

There had been an earlier clash, called the First Battle of Bullecourt on April 11, 1917, involving Australian infantry leading the attack with tank support.

However, the tanks were poorly coordinated, and many were quickly disabled by German artillery.

While the Australians managed to breach parts of the German trenches, they were left without reinforcements and artillery support.

So, when German forces launched a counterattack, the Australians were forced to retreat and surrendering all the ground they had gained.

This defeat was costly, with over 11,000 casualties, including 3,300 Australians and 1,170 prisoners.

In response to the failure of the first attack, the British and Australians launched a second, better-planned offensive at Bullecourt on May 3, 1917.

This time, the attack was supported by artillery, and both British and Australian forces assaulted the German positions from different sides.

The Allied forces managed to capture and hold portions of the Hindenburg Line, despite facing fierce German counterattacks.

While the Germans eventually withdrew from the town of Bullecourt on May 15, the cost of the battle was high, with over 7,000 Australian casualties.

Although the Second Battle of Bullecourt resulted in some gains, it failed to achieve the decisive breakthrough the Allies had hoped for, which left much of the Hindenburg Line intact.

After failing to breach the Hindenburg Line, the Allies shifted their focus to Ypres due to its strategic importance on the Western Front.

The Ypres Salient, a bulge in the Allied front lines, was the site of intense and sustained battles, including two major engagements: First Ypres (October 19 to November 22, 1914) and Second Ypres (April 22 to May 25, 1915).

The area's high ground provided significant tactical advantages for artillery and observation

Capturing the ridges around Ypres, such as Messines Ridge, would provide a tactical advantage and better positioning for future operations.

Additionally, the offensive aimed to once more relieve pressure on French forces following the failed Nivelle Offensive and maintain momentum against German forces.

The attack on Ypres also sought to address the German U-boat threat by targeting Belgian ports used by submarines, making an offensive in Flanders a strategic priority.

In preparation for a third major battle at Ypres, the Allies wanted to specifically seize control of Messines Ridge.

On June 7, 1917, General Sir Herbert Plumer ordered the British Second Army to place 19 massive mines beneath the German lines, which were detonated at 3:10 a.m.

They caused around 10,000 German casualties from explosions that were reportedly heard as far away as London.

Following the detonation, British, Australian, New Zealand, and Canadian forces advanced behind a well-coordinated creeping artillery barrage.

The precision of the attack allowed the Allied forces to capture Messines Ridge within hours, taking approximately 7,000 German prisoners and successfully repelling German counterattacks.

By its conclusion on the 14th of June, the battle had demonstrated the effectiveness of combined use of artillery, mines, and infantry, and it resulted in about 26,000 casualties on each side.

Messines Ridge was a significant success for the Allies, and it would be studied as a model for future operations.

Encouraged by the success at Messines Ridge, the Allies then launched the Third Battle of Ypres, which is also known as the Battle of Passchendaele.

It lasted from July 31 to November 10, 1917, beginning with a massive artillery bombardment that targeting German positions and lasted for ten days before the infantry assault.

This offensive included a series of key engagements such as the battles of Pilckem Ridge, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, and Broodseinde, all aimed at gaining control of high ground around Ypres.

However, heavy rains turned the battlefield into a quagmire, severely complicating movement and reducing the effectiveness of both infantry and artillery.

As a result, the battle eventually devolved into a brutal and costly stalemate. Allied forces, including Canadian troops who made a notable advance on October 26, managed to capture Passchendaele Ridge in November, but the gains were limited to around five miles with no significant strategic breakthrough.

The battle resulted in staggering casualties, with the Allies losing around 310,000 men and German losses estimated between 217,000 and 260,000.

The muddy terrain and harsh weather compounded the suffering on both sides, making Passchendaele one of the most grueling battles of the war.

Although the Allies technically claimed victory by capturing the high ground, the overall outcome was disappointing, as the hoped-for breakthrough and access to Belgian ports remained unachieved.

During the fighting at Ypres, the Allies received devastating news from Russia. 

A revolution in February of 1917 had overthrown Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of the Provisional Government brought hope to the Allies that Russia would remain in the conflict, as the new government initially chose to continue the war.

However, the continued strain of fighting, combined with widespread discontent in Russia over food shortages and military defeats, led to internal instability.

This instability weakened Russia’s ability to contribute effectively to the war, and its soldiers became increasingly disillusioned with the prolonged conflict.

Despite this, the Allies decided to support the Provisional Government, fearing that a Russian exit from the war could allow Germany to consolidate its forces and strengthen its position.

Then in October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government in a second revolution.

This event had a direct and immediate impact on World War I, as the new Bolshevik government quickly sign a treaty with Germany, formally ending its participation in the war.

The treaty was a major blow to the Allies, as it allowed Germany to transfer large numbers of troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front, where they could potentially launch renewed offensives against the British, French, and American forces in the coming year.

However, as the year came to a close, there was one last positive outcome for the Allies before the arrival of winter.

At the Battle of Cambrai, from November 20 to December 7, the British launched a new offensive on the Western Front, which was the first large-scale use of tanks in warfare.

The primary objective was to break through the heavily fortified German Hindenburg Line and demonstrate the effectiveness of mechanized warfare.

Nearly 500 British tanks, supported by artillery and infantry, launched a surprise attack.

They initially advancing 5 miles into German-held territory, as the tanks were able to overcome barbed wire and enemy defenses with unprecedented efficiency.

Unfortunately, by November 30, German forces launched a well-coordinated counterattack, in which they regained much of the lost ground and pushing the British back.

The battle inflicted heavy casualties on both sides, with around 45,000 British and 50,000 German soldiers wounded or killed.

Though the territorial gains were limited, the Battle of Cambrai was significant in demonstrating the effectiveness of tanks and mechanized warfare, laying the groundwork for future developments in military tactics.

Unfortunately, by the end of 1917, despite the massive death tolls, the strategic situation on the Western Front remained largely deadlocked still.

All the Allies' attempts to break through the German defenses had failed to result in a decisive victory. 

Meanwhile, Germany, while having defended its lines effectively, faced increasing pressure due to the heavy toll of the war.

The continued blockade imposed by the British Navy created severe shortages of food and supplies, which weakened the morale of German soldiers and civilians alike.

However, the collapse of Russia following the October Revolution allowed Germany to transfer troops to the Western Front.

This gave Germany the opportunity to prepare for a major offensive in 1918, which they hoped would break the deadlock before American forces could fully arrive and tip the balance in favor of the Allies.