An overview of the First Sino-Japanese War

Since 1868, Japan had undergone a period of rapid modernisation, called the Meiji Restoration, and they had become a leading power in East Asia.

This alarmed the Qing dynasty of China, which saw Japan as a threat to its own position in the region.

In 1894, tensions between Japan and China boiled over into open conflict.

The immediate cause of the war was the dispute over control of Korea. Both China and Japan had long been interested in the peninsula, which was seen as a valuable strategic location.

In 1876, Japan had signed a treaty with Korea that gave it certain privileges, including the right to station troops in the country.

The war was also partly caused by the Donghak Peasant Revolution, which began in 1894 in Korea.

This was a revolt against Korean rulers, who were seen as being too influenced by foreign powers (such as China and Japan).

The rebels called for an end to foreign influence, and for a return to traditional Korean values. 

The rebels were supported by China. Japan saw this as a threat to its interests, and sent their own troops into Korea to counter the Chinese presence.

At the onset of hostilities, Japan deployed over 8,000 troops in Korea, far surpassing the Chinese contingent.

These Japanese forces were also led by experienced commanders such as Admiral Ito Sukeyuki and General Yamagata Aritomo.

On July 23, 1894, the Japanese captured the Korean royal palace and Joseon King Gojong and renamed him Gwangmu Emperor, as a way of indicating that he was now no longer under Chinese control.

Then, on the 25th of July, 4,000 Japanese soldiers marched south towards the port city of Asan to drive out the 3800 Chinese troops.

On July 25, 1894, the first clash took place in the naval Battle of Pungdo off the coast near Asan, Korea.

Here, the Japanese naval forces intercepted a Chinese fleet carrying reinforcements and supplies destined for Qing army units stationed in Korea.

The Japanese, thanks to more modern equipment and well-trained crews, held a significant technological and tactical advantage over their Chinese counterparts, whose fleet matched Japan’s in numbers.

As a result, the Japanese fleet outmaneuvered the Chinese, and sank the Chinese cruiser Gaosheng and disabled the gunboat Jiyuan, which suffered heavy damage and was forced to retreat.

This triumph disrupted a critical supply line for Chinese troops stationed south of Seoul, which effectively prevented essential reinforcements and resources from reaching the Chinese forces in Korea.

This was followed by the first major land engagement of the First Sino-Japanese War at the Battle of Seonghwan on July 28, 1894.

The Japanese forces, led by General Ōshima Yoshimasa, launched an attack against the Chinese garrison stationed near Asan, which numbered around 3,500 troops.

With roughly 4,000 Japanese soldiers, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery units, the Japanese unleashed a series of surprise tactics, including night maneuvers and flanking strategies, which breached the Chinese defenses, as they caught the Qing forces off guard.

After two hours of intense combat, the Chinese defenders, unable to hold their positions under the sustained Japanese assault, fled toward Asan.

In doing so, they abandoned crucial weapons and supplies on the battlefield.

They inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese forces, who lost approximately 500 men.

In contrast, Japanese losses remained significantly lower, with around 80 soldiers reported as wounded or killed. 

Following their victory at Seonghwan, Japanese forces quickly pursued the retreating Chinese troops and seized the city of Asan on July 29, 1894.

This city was of significant strategic value as a critical supply hub for Qing forces stationed south of Seoul.

The attackers encountered scattered Chinese defenses and a series of challenging natural obstacles.

Yet, with disciplined infantry assaults supported by well-coordinated artillery fire, the Japanese forces secured the city with minimal resistance.

This swift takeover inflicted around 500 casualties on the Chinese, while Japanese losses remained relatively low, with fewer than 100 casualties reported.

By capturing Asan, Japanese forces dealt a significant blow to Qing military operations in Korea, since it disrupted essential supply lines for the Chinese, and limited the Qing army's ability to reinforce and sustain their positions in the region.

The surviving Chinese forces, now cut off from crucial resources, withdrew northward toward Pyongyang.

In response to these escalating confrontations, both Japan and China officially declared war on August 1.

The next major battle of the war was the Battle of Pyongyang, which took place on September 15, 1894.

The Japanese army, still under command of General Oshima Yoshimasa, launched a determined assault on the fortified Chinese positions in the city.

They approached from three sides using approximately 15,000 troops against the Qing army’s force of around 13,000 soldiers.

Once more, coordinated artillery and ground attacks helped the Japanese forces swiftly breached the Chinese defenses.

By the end of the day, the Japanese gained full control of Pyongyang, inflicting substantial losses on the Qing army, which counted around 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded or missing.

Japanese forces, meanwhile, sustained notably fewer casualties, with official reports listing 568 soldiers as dead, wounded, or missing.

The fall of Pyongyang effectively eliminated Chinese influence in Korea, allowing Japan to assert full control over the peninsula by early October.

The Chinese forces abandoned the region and retreated northward. 

After securing Korea, Japan turned its attention to neutralizing the Qing navy.

On September 17, 1894, the Japanese fleet engaged the Chinese Beiyang Fleet in the Battle of the Yalu River.

It featured Japan’s fleet of 12 modern warships, which included 8 protected cruisers, including the flagship Matsushima, and 2 ironclads, among others.

They were against China’s Beiyang Fleet, one of China’s four regional naval forces, which had 14 ships, including 2 battleships (Dingyuan and Zhenyuan), several cruisers, and smaller vessels.

Though similar in size, the Japanese fleet held a technological advantage over the Chinese, primarily through the use of advanced quick-firing guns. Over a span of five just hours, the Japanese fleet demonstrated its tactical strength by swiftly outmaneuvering the Qing ships and targeting vulnerable points in their formations.

At its completion, the Japanese had successfully sunk 5 Chinese ships, including the flagship Zhiyuan, while heavily damaging others, with approximately 850 men killed.

Japan, by contrast, reported only about 90 casualties and did not lose a single ship.

This victory severely weakened China’s naval capabilities and left its sea routes vulnerable to Japanese control.

Ultimately, by neutralizing the Qing navy, Japan effectively prevented any resupply of Chinese ground forces in Korea.

Following the rapid defeats at Pyongyang and Yalu River, China withdrew from Korea and prepared to defend their home territories.

By late October 1894, Japan began its advance into China itself. The first major objective was the capture of Jinzhou, located on the Liaodong Peninsula.

On October 24, 1894, the Japanese forces launched their attack on the area but faced little effective resistance due to poor coordination and morale among the Chinese defenders.

Within days, the Japanese had overrun Jinzhou, and by November 6, they advanced further to capture Dalian—a critical port city that served as a gateway to the strategically important naval base at Lüshunkou, also known as Port Arthur.

This led to the Battle of Port Arthur, which began on November 21, 1894, where about 18,000 Japanese soldiers launched an overwhelming assault on the Qing defenders of roughly 13,000 soldiers.

The defenders were poorly led and ill-equipped and, within two days, the Japanese had taken control of Port Arthur.

This meant that they took control of valuable military supplies and provided Japan with a key base of operations for launching further incursions into mainland China.

Perhaps the most notorious event took place on November 21st, 1894, when Japanese troops killed thousands of Chinese civilians in what has become known as the Port Arthur Massacre.

Following their success in the south, Japanese forces prepared for a decisive strike at Weihaiwei, another strategic port on the Shandong Peninsula, where the remnants of the Beiyang Fleet had sought refuge.

On January 20, 1895, the Battle of Weihaiwei began, with Japanese forces launching another coordinated land and naval assault.

The Japanese command mobilized over 25,000 troops to surround the city, while their navy blockaded any escape routes for the Chinese fleet. This effectively trapped the remaining Chinese vessels and isolated Qing forces within the port.

In the weeks that followed, Japanese forces systematically dismantled the Chinese defenses around Weihaiwei, capturing key fortifications one by one, and Chinese forces struggled to maintain their positions under the sustained pressure.

On February 12, 1895, Admiral Ding Ruchang, commander of the Chinese fleet, assessed the dire situation and decided to surrender, recognizing that further resistance was futile.

With Weihaiwei’s fall, Japan completed the destruction of the Beiyang Fleet, delivering a decisive blow to China’s naval strength and eliminating its capacity to defend the coastline.

This victory at Weihaiwei left China vulnerable to further military incursions. In reality, it left few options for effective resistance.

So, by April, Japanese forces advanced toward Beijing, which prompted China to seek peace.

On April 17, 1895, Japan and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which formally ended the war.

Under the terms of the treaty, China recognised Korea's independence from China, and ceded Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to Japan.

In addition, China agreed to pay Japan a large indemnity of 200 million taels (approximately US$600 million).

One of the main reasons for Japan's victory was its superior military technology. At the time, Japan was far more modernised than China, and had better weapons and equipment. 

Another factor contributing to Japan's victory was its superior training and discipline of troops. The Japanese military was far more organized compared to the Chinese forces, which often suffered from poor leadership and a lack of discipline.

In particular, Japanese forces were equipped with Miyamoto and Mauser rifles, which offered superior firepower compared to the older, single-shot rifles used by many Chinese troops.

Moreover, Japan was highly motivated to emerge victorious, determined to take control of Korea, whereas China was content to maintain the status quo. 

By the end of the conflict, Japan had mobilized nearly 240,000 soldiers to support its campaigns in Korea and Manchuria.

The Sino-Japanese War was a watershed moment in the history of both countries. For China, it marked the end of its centuries-long domination of East Asia.

For Japan, it was the first step on the road to becoming a major world power. 

The Sino-Japanese War also laid bare the weakness of traditional Chinese military tactics and technology, which would be exploited by other foreign powers in the years to come.

For China, it was a humiliating defeat that showed the world how far behind Japan they had fallen.

The Qing dynasty was weakened politically by the war, and this led to a series of rebellions that eventually toppled the dynasty in 1911. 

Finally, the war demonstrated the growing power of Japan as the dominant regional leader and set in motion a series of events that would lead to the country's eventual domination of East Asia. 

Russia, Germany, and France objected to Japan's seizure of the Liaodong Peninsula, and they forced Japan to return it to China in the Triple Intervention of 1895.

This did not sit well with the Japanese, who felt humiliated by the other powers. In particular, it led to increased tensions between Russia and Japan, which would eventually erupt into the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).