How Napoleon lost his grip on Europe and was finally defeated

Following Napoleon’s defeat of the combined forces of Austria and Russia at the Battle of Austerlitz on the 2nd of December 1805, he now possessed large parts of Italy and other former regions of the Habsburg lands.

Napoleon then reorganised his European territories so that they operated as a larger part of his French Empire.

However, to do so, Napoleon had to dissolve political structures that had existed for almost 1000 years. 

First of all, Napoleon forced the regions of Germany to accept French control in the Treaty of Pressburg, which was signed on the 26th of December 1805.

Then, he appointed his brother Louis as King of Holland in June 1806, and created a new political entity called the Confederation of the Rhine in July.

This confederation combined the regions of western Germany, including Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Aschaffenburg, and Nassau.

The loss of so much of the traditional lands of the Holy Roman Empire meant that Emperor Francis of Austria formally announced the end of his title of Holy Roman emperor on August 6 of 1806.

After 1000 years of existence, the Holy Roman Empire was officially dissolved.

The dramatic removal of traditional state structures outraged the Prussians and they signed a secret alliance with Russia in July 1806.

Then, in September of 1806, Prussia declared war on Napoleon’s France, with Russia’s support.

Unfortunately, the Prussian army at the time lacked the training and equipment possessed by the French troops.  

On the 14th of October, the Prussian forces suffered defeats at Jena and at Auerstädt, with tens of thousands killed, as well as thousands taken prisoner.

When the French Grand Armée encountered the Russians at Eylau in February of 1807, they were temporarily pushed back, but then the French defeated them at Friedland in June of the same year.

By this stage, Tsar Alexander asked to meet Napoleon at the town of Tilsit, in northern Prussia.

A treaty was signed in July of 1807 which created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from territories the French had seized from Prussia.

As a result of this treaty, Europe was effectively divided in two between Napoleon and Alexander. 

The agreement between France and Russia created a significant problem for Great Britain, as they could no longer sell their trade goods in the ports of Europe.

This blockade of British goods was ordered by Napoleon, as he hoped to devastate his enemy’s economies, which could force them to avoid future wars against him. 

However, for the blockade to be completely successfully, Napoleon had to ensure all of Europe complied with his order.

On the western coast of Europe, Portugal refused to join the blockade. As a way of punishing the Portuguese, Charles IV of Spain allowed French troops to march through his kingdom to attack Portugal.  

Napoleon’s troops quickly captured the city of Lisbon, but the people of Spain rose up in rebellion against their king’s decision to allow French armies through their land.

In response to the revolt, Charles IV abdicated the throne and his son, Ferdinand VII, took power.

Napoleon was unhappy with these events and so ordered both Charles and Ferdinand to give up the crown in April 1808.

In their place, Napoleon crowned his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, first as king of Naples and then of Spain.

This made the Spanish people even more angry, and a series of armed uprisings broke out across the country. 

Napoleon’s troops would spend many months trying to suppress these revolts and suffering damaging defeats in the process.

The cost in money and men of keeping hold of Spain started to wear on the French economy, as Britain soon supported the Spanish and Portuguese fighters. 

In September and October of 1808, Napoleon met with Alexander I of Russia again in the Congress of Erfurt where he sought the Tsar’s help with the war in Spain.

However, while the two leaders reaffirmed their friendship, Russia would not commit to helping the French.

The ongoing Spanish resistance would be a long-term problem for Napoleon.

Throughout 1809, British-supported Spanish rebels constantly attacked the French. 

In April of 1809, as most of the French Grand Armée was tied down in Spain, Austria attacked French-controlled Bavaria.

Napoleon had to raise more troops and fought back against the invasion.

On May 21-2, 1809, Napoleon suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Aspern-Essling against the Austrian army commanded by Archduke Charles, which was the first time Napoleon was personally defeated in battle.

However, despite this, Napoleon quickly regrouped and secured a decisive victory against the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram in July 1809.

As a result, the Austrians had to then accept their defeat in the Treaty of Schönbrunn on the 14th of October 1809.  

By 1810 Napoleon’s European empire was at its greatest extent. He then married the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Marie-Louise, who gave birth to a son in March 1811.

With an heir to the French Empire, the line of succession was safe, should something happen to Napoleon.

Napoleon’s Continental System, which was first established in 1806, redrew the borders of the countries of Europe to more simply line up with geographic features.

Also, intended to cripple Britain's economy by prohibiting European nations under French influence from trading with Britain.

In addition, it simplified the political life of the continent, as it reduced the number of countries and forced them to adopt the institutions of the revolution, such as the Napoleonic Code and the metric system. 

Disappointed with Russia’s failure to support him at the Congress of Erfurt, Napoleon feared that Alexander would betray him.

So, in early 1812, Napoleon started assembling the Grand Armée in Poland, on the border of Russia.

Then, in June, he ordered his 600,000-strong army to invade Russia. 

The Russian troops retreated back into Russia and burnt crops along the way to deny the French much-needed food supplies.

By the start of September, Napoleon’s army reached the outskirts of Moscow. The Russia army, under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov, decided to stand and fight at the Battle of Borodino on the 7th of September.

After heavy losses on both sides, the battle was inconclusive but within a week, Napoleon marched on Moscow.

When Napoleon entered the city in September 1812, he found the city largely deserted and soon after, much of Moscow was set ablaze by the Russians themselves.

Napoleon had been expecting Tsar Alexander to meet with him and sign a treaty of surrender.

However, Alexander refused to do so, and the war continued. Since Moscow was now burnt out, Napoleon’s army did not have sufficient shelter nor supplies during the harsh winter.

Frustrated with a lack of clear victory, surrounded in enemy territories, and far from home, Napoleon knew that he had to withdraw his troops before winter hit.

Unfortunately, the snows arrived early and devastated the Grand Armée. By the time they arrived back in Poland, only around 10,000 soldiers were left. 

The news of the disastrous Russian campaign inspired anti-French rebellions in Germany and the Prussian army to defect from Napoleon’s Grand Armée.

In a similar way, Austrian troops and Italian regions broke away from Napoleon’s control. 

Napoleon received word of unhappiness in France as well. One of his generals, Claude-François de Malet, spread a false new report that Napoleon had died in Russia, and attempted to seize control of Paris on the 23rd of October 1812.

Even though the coup failed, Napoleon decided to rush back to Paris to reestablish order.  

Aiming to capitalise on the failing support for Napoleon, a sixth coalition of countries formed to throw off French control of Europe.

Prussia, Russia, Great Britain, Portugal, Sweden, Spain, and various German states rose up against Napoleon.

Even though Napoleon won some significant victory against the Russians and Prussians in May 1813, at the Battles of Lützen and Bautzen, the French army suffered heavy losses and lacked sufficient reinforcements.

Then, on June 21, 1813, a British-led coalition under the Duke of Wellington defeated Joseph Bonaparte’s French forces at the Battle of Vitoria in Spain.

This triggered the collapse of French control in the Peninsular War and triggered the eventual liberation of Spain from Napoleon's control.

Fully aware of his weak position, neutral Austria encouraged Napoleon to accept a ceasefire.

However, Napoleon delayed in responding, which Austria interpreted as an intention of continuing the war.

Frustrated with Napoleon, Austria also declared war.

With most of Europe now against him, Napoleon’s forces were in danger. When the French army met the combined forces of the Sixth Coalition at the Battle of Leipzig on the 16-19th October 1813, the Grand Armée was overwhelmingly defeated.

News of the loss spread quickly, and French forces in Spain retreated and by October, the British attacked them along the Pyrenees.

The Austrians invaded Italy, and the low countries rejected Napoleon’s control. 

By January 1814, France was surrounded. The coalition forces announced that if the French people surrendered Napoleon, the country of France would not be occupied.

As a result, the French Legislative Assembly and the Senate, formally asked for peace terms.

However, Napoleon continued to resist with his soldiers.

The coalition forces arrived at Paris on the 30th of March 1814, and Napoleon retreated east.

The French government, in the absence of Napoleon, signed a peace deal. They announced that Napoleon was no longer emperor and, realising he had nowhere to turn, Napoleon finally abdicated on the 6th of April. 

As part of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the coalition forces ordered that Napoleon be sent away to exile on the island Elba, just off the western coast of Italy, where he arrived on the 4th of May 1814. 

Back in Paris, the younger brother of the last king of France, Louis XVI, was crowned in a new ceremony.

Named Louis XVIII, he was quickly disliked by the French people, who still considered the revolution of 1789 to be a good thing.  

Counting on the dissatisfaction of the French people towards their new king, Napoleon decided to act.

He escaped from Elba and landed in France on the 1st of March 1815. As he marched towards Paris, French people flocked to join him and, when French soldiers were sent to arrest him, they decided to join Napoleon instead.

He successfully marched into Paris at the head of his troops on the 20th of March 1815. 

However, the coalition forces were quick to act and began forming a new army in Belgium.

Napoleon marched out with his loyal forces and achieved his last ever military victory against the Prussians at Ligny on the 16th of June.

Two days later, a massive battle took place at Waterloo. The coalition forces were led by the British commander Wellington.

By halfway through the day, it appeared that Napoleon was about to win. Then, Prussians forces under the command of Gebhard Blücher arrived and swung the battle against France.

By the end of the day, Napoleon was soundly defeated. 

The French parliament once more forced Napoleon to abdicate on the 22nd of June 1815.

However, Napoleon wanted to flee to America for safety but was intercepted by the British and eventually surrendered.

The captured Napoleon was held on a ship called the HMS Bellerophon until it was decided to exile him once more.

This time, to an island even further away, to reduce any further chance of a return. 

Great Britain chose the southern Atlantic island of St Helena as a suitable location for Napoleon’s final exile.

He arrived there on the 15th of October 1815 and lived on an estate called Longwood.

Towards the end of 1817, Napoleon became sick. During early 1821, his health rapidly deteriorated and he rarely left his bed.

He finally died on the 5th of May at 51 years old.