How the mighty Mongol empire failed spectacularly to invade Japan ... twice

The Mongol Empire, one of the largest and most powerful empires in human history, had humble beginnings in the steppes of Central Asia.

It was the exceptional leadership and strategic genius of Genghis Khan, born as Temujin, that transformed a collection of fragmented tribes into a unified and formidable military machine.

In 1206, Genghis Khan, after a series of military victories over rival tribes, was declared the 'Great Khan' of the Mongols.

This marked the genesis of the Mongol Empire. With innovative military tactics, an extraordinary cavalry, and a unique nomadic lifestyle, the Mongols swept across Asia and Eastern Europe in an unprecedented wave of conquests.

From the Great Wall of China to the gates of Vienna, the footprint of the Mongol Empire became evident across continents.

Upon Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons, but it continued to grow.

His grandson, Kublai Khan, was instrumental in this ongoing expansion. Kublai Khan, ascending to the throne in 1260, established the Yuan Dynasty in China and further expanded the empire's reach, amassing territories stretching from Eastern Europe to Southeast Asia.

Kublai Khan's rule saw not only military conquests but also significant developments in trade, cultural exchange, and administration.

However, his ambitions did not stop at the borders of the known world. He set his eyes on Japan, a nation that, up until then, had managed to avoid the grasp of the Mongol Empire. 

During the period leading up to the Mongol invasions, Japan was ruled by the Kamakura Shogunate, a military government that had been established by Minamoto no Yoritomo after his victory in the Genpei War in 1185.

The Kamakura Shogunate marked a shift in Japanese governance from imperial and aristocratic rule to a warrior-led government, dominated by the samurai class.

While the emperor still held a symbolic role, real power was in the hands of the Shogun and the samurai class, who ruled with a feudal system.

This system was characterized by a hierarchical organization of warrior estates, with loyalty and military service being exchanged for protection and land.

The Kamakura period saw the establishment and consolidation of the samurai as the ruling elite, as well as the development of Bushido, the samurai code of ethics.

Geographically isolated by the sea, Japan had limited contact with the mainland of Asia.

Its international relations were primarily with the Korean Peninsula and China, through which cultural, religious, and some technological influences were absorbed into Japanese society.

Trade with these nations was prevalent, although not to the scale that would later be seen in the Muromachi period.

By the 13th century, however, the Kamakura Shogunate was facing internal difficulties.

There were power struggles within the warrior class and financial difficulties resulting from efforts to strengthen the country's defensive capabilities.

Nevertheless, the samurai were known for their bravery, discipline, and military skills, attributes that would be tested with the advent of the Mongol invasions.

Little did they know that their land was about to attract the attention of the world's largest empire and become the stage for a historical drama that would leave an indelible mark on their nation's history.

The Mongol invasions of Japan in the 13th century were motivated by a complex blend of ambition, perceived strategic necessity, and geopolitical considerations.

The central figure in this drama was Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler who oversaw the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty in China and sought to expand his dominion further.

At the heart of Kublai Khan's motivations was his aspiration to consolidate his power and increase the wealth and influence of his empire.

Japan, with its reputation for abundant gold and other resources, represented an attractive target.

Conquering the archipelago would not only potentially bring these resources into the Mongol fold but would also add another jewel to the Mongol Empire's crown, enhancing its prestige.

Furthermore, Kublai Khan viewed the annexation of Japan as a strategic necessity to secure his eastern flank.

In the mid-13th century, the Mongols had already subjugated Korea and made it a vassal state.

However, Japan's independent status posed a potential threat, and its subjugation was seen as a necessary move to secure the Mongol's regional hegemony.

Kublai Khan initially sought to achieve his objectives through diplomacy. In 1266, he sent envoys to Japan, carrying a letter that demanded the Kamakura Shogunate's allegiance to the Yuan Dynasty.

However, his diplomatic overtures were rebuffed, and his envoys returned empty-handed.

This refusal to submit to Mongol authority was interpreted as a challenge and affront to Kublai Khan's power, providing the immediate trigger for the invasions.

Following the repeated failure of diplomatic overtures towards Japan, Kublai Khan decided to assert his dominance through force.

The first Mongol invasion of Japan began in 1274, marking a crucial moment in East Asian history.

The preparation for the invasion was a colossal undertaking. Kublai Khan assembled a diverse force, consisting of Mongols, Chinese, and Koreans, with estimates of its size ranging from 20,000 to 40,000 men.

The Mongols, renowned for their cavalry, faced a new challenge in this naval expedition, requiring a substantial fleet of Korean and Chinese ships.

The invasion force landed first on Tsushima Island in November 1274, where the local samurai force was overwhelmed.

The Mongols, with their distinct style of warfare, which included the use of explosive projectiles, were a daunting adversary.

From Tsushima, they moved onto Iki Island, also achieving victory. Emboldened, they then aimed for the main island, Kyushu.

However, the Mongols' initial successes did not translate into a decisive victory.

The Japanese samurai put up a fierce resistance at the Battle of Hakata Bay, using guerrilla tactics to counter the Mongol's unfamiliar warfare style.

The fight was intense and brutal, and while the samurai suffered losses, they managed to prevent the Mongols from advancing further.

As the battle raged on, a sudden and violent storm – what the Japanese would later call a "kamikaze" or divine wind – swept the Hakata Bay.

Many of the Mongol ships were destroyed or severely damaged, and the decision was made to retreat.

The battered invasion fleet returned to Korea, marking the end of the first invasion attempt.

The period between the first and second Mongol invasions of Japan, from 1274 to 1281, was a time of preparation, reflection, and strategic planning for both sides.

The dramatic conclusion of the first invasion had demonstrated the threats and challenges each faced, prompting a re-evaluation of their strategies.

In Japan, the invasion had sent shockwaves through the societal and political fabric.

The samurai warriors, despite their valiant resistance, had struggled against the Mongols' unconventional warfare.

Realizing the possibility of a second attack, Japan's rulers began to take measures to bolster their defensive capabilities.

The Kamakura Shogunate set about constructing a defensive wall at Hakata Bay, the expected landing site for any future invasions.

This wall, known as Genko Borui, was made of earth and wooden palisades, stretching over 20 kilometers along the northern shore of Kyushu.

In addition to physical defenses, the Shogunate also worked to consolidate the regional samurai groups, strengthening their collective military power.

Meanwhile, Kublai Khan was undeterred by the failure of the first invasion. He was intent on subjugating Japan and saw the unsuccessful invasion more as a setback than a defeat.

Consequently, he began preparations for a second, larger invasion.

The Mongols gathered a formidable force, reportedly more extensive than the first, with troops from various parts of the Mongol Empire, including Mongols, Chinese, Koreans, and even some Jurchens and Khitans.

Additionally, they constructed a massive fleet, addressing some of the weaknesses that had plagued the first expedition.

Seven years after their initial attempt, the Mongols launched their second invasion of Japan in 1281.

This time, Kublai Khan's forces were considerably larger, with estimates varying from 70,000 to 140,000 soldiers, and a corresponding fleet size which was one of the largest naval invasion forces in history.

The Mongol forces were divided into two main fleets: the Eastern Army (primarily of Koreans and Mongols) which would sail directly to Japan, and the Southern Army (largely made up of Southern Chinese) which was to meet the Eastern Army at Iki Island before proceeding to invade the Japanese mainland.

Unfortunately for the Mongols, coordination between these two armies failed. The Eastern Army arrived ahead of schedule and, rather than waiting for their counterparts, decided to press on with the invasion.

At the same time, the Japanese defenses had been significantly improved since the first invasion, with fortifications along potential landing sites and a well-coordinated samurai force ready to repel the invaders.

The Eastern Army managed to land on the small islands of Shiga and Nokono but found their advance halted by the sturdy defensive wall at Hakata Bay on Kyushu.

The samurai defenders fiercely contested the Mongol landing. Unlike the first invasion, the Mongols couldn't gain a foothold on the main island, and the fighting resulted in a stalemate.

When the Southern Army finally arrived, it was met with a fortified and prepared Japanese force.

Before a decisive battle could take place, however, nature intervened once again. A massive typhoon, another kamikaze, struck the region, devastating the Mongol fleet.

The Mongol forces, battered and unable to maintain their supply lines or reinforcements, were forced to retreat.

The second invasion ended much like the first one, with the Mongols' grand plans thwarted by Japan's stiff resistance and fortuitous weather.

The "divine wind" of the kamikaze had once again saved Japan, reinforcing the belief in Japan's divine protection and invulnerability to foreign invasion.

The impact of this event would resonate not only in the immediate aftermath but for centuries to come.

The aftermath of the Mongol invasions had a profound and lasting impact on Japan, shaping its military, political, and cultural landscape in significant ways.

The successful defense against the formidable Mongol Empire bolstered national morale and solidified the prestige and power of the samurai class.

Militarily, the invasions led to a re-evaluation of traditional samurai combat styles. Facing an enemy who favored large-scale, coordinated attacks, Japanese warriors began to move away from their focus on single combat.

This shift towards a more organized, group-based strategy played a crucial role in future military developments in Japan.

Politically, the Kamakura Shogunate initially gained prestige and authority from the successful defense against the Mongols.

However, the financial strain of maintaining defenses and rewarding the samurai who had fought began to take a toll.

The Shogunate's inability to adequately compensate the samurai caused dissatisfaction, leading to instability and eventually contributing to the fall of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1333.

Culturally, the belief in the kamikaze, or divine wind, further entrenched the native Shinto belief in Japan's divine protection.

The fact that massive typhoons had twice thwarted the Mongol fleets was interpreted as divine intervention, enhancing Japan's sense of unique identity and instilling a sense of invincibility against foreign invaders.

The Mongol invasions also left a mark on Japan's relations with the outside world. The failure of Kublai Khan's attempts to subdue Japan kept the archipelago outside the Mongol sphere of influence, preserving its cultural uniqueness.

However, the invasions also contributed to Japan's isolationist tendencies, an outlook that would define its foreign policy until the modern era.

The Mongol invasions of Japan were a rare setback for what was the most powerful empire in the world during the 13th century.

Although the Mongol Empire continued to dominate vast territories across Asia and Eastern Europe, the failed attempts to conquer Japan had significant impacts on its military, political, and economic conditions.

Militarily, the invasions exposed the limitations of the Mongol's formidable land-based cavalry tactics when applied to naval expeditions and island warfare.

The challenges of coordination, logistics, and differing combat styles of their vassal states highlighted shortcomings in the Mongols' military apparatus.

While these setbacks did not significantly undermine the Mongols' overall military prowess, they did illustrate that the Mongol war machine was not invincible.

Politically, the unsuccessful invasions of Japan were a blow to Kublai Khan's prestige.

The Mongol's political power was heavily reliant on their military success. Failure to subjugate Japan twice, especially after mobilizing extensive resources, undermined Kublai Khan's authority and tarnished his image as an invincible world conqueror.

This failure could have contributed to weakening his control over the vast, diverse empire.

Economically, the invasions were a significant drain on the Mongol Empire's resources.

Mobilizing large armies, constructing enormous fleets, and sustaining prolonged campaigns required vast amounts of money and resources.

The invasions' failure meant that these considerable investments yielded no return, straining the empire's treasury and potentially contributing to its economic troubles in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

In the broader context of the Mongol Empire's history, the unsuccessful invasions of Japan were but a small part of its complex narrative.

However, they represented a notable failure in the Mongol's otherwise impressive record of conquests.

They highlighted the limits of the Mongol's military adaptability, the vulnerabilities of their political structure, and the strain that continuous warfare exerted on their economy.