The march on Rome: How did Mussolini seize power in Italy?

World War I had drained the nation’s resources and left its economy in ruins.

Inflation soared, unemployment rates skyrocketed, and returning soldiers found a country unprepared to reintegrate them into civilian life.

Widespread poverty and discontent rapidly spread throughout the population. As factories closed and wages fell, strikes and protests became common.

As a result, it fueled a growing sense of anger and frustration among the Italian people. 

Moreover, the government seemed powerless to address these problems. A succession of weak coalitions, led by Prime Ministers like Giovanni Giolitti and Francesco Nitti, struggled to maintain control.

They enacted a range of reforms, but these did little to satisfy the public. With each new administration, public confidence eroded further.

In the major Italian cities, left-wing and right-wing political factions battled for influence, while the countryside saw peasants and landowners increasingly at odds.  

Many Italians felt betrayed by the liberal government, which had promised prosperity but delivered only hardship.

The democratic system, which had only been established decades earlier, appeared fragile.

Violent clashes between socialist and fascist groups erupted in towns and cities across the country.

Rural areas saw a rise in agrarian socialism, with peasants seizing land and staging revolts. Meanwhile, nationalist sentiment grew stronger.

This is where the figure of Mussolini first appeared as a significant element on the national stage. 

Benito Mussolini was born on July 29, 1883, in the small town of Predappio in northern Italy.

His father, Alessandro, was a fervent socialist, and his mother, Rosa, a devout Catholic schoolteacher.

As a young man, he became an ardent socialist himself, as he was clearly influenced by his father’s passionate speeches and the writings of Karl Marx.

By 1902, Mussolini had moved to Switzerland to avoid military service, where he worked as a laborer and engaged in socialist activism. 

In Switzerland, Mussolini quickly became known for his oratory and writing, which often focused on class struggle and revolution.

During this period, he wrote for several socialist newspapers and participated in protests.

By 1904, he returned to Italy and served in the army. In 1910, he had become the editor of La Lotta di Classe (The Class Struggle), a socialist newspaper in Forlì.

Under his direction, the paper's tone became more militant. However, when World War I broke out in 1914 Mussolini opposed it, as was consistent with the socialist stance, but soon his views began to shift. 

For Mussolini, the war represented an opportunity for national rebirth. By October 1914, he broke with the Socialist Party, which had maintained a strict anti-war position, and began advocating for Italy’s intervention on the side of the Allies.

This dramatic shift stunned many of his comrades. After his expulsion from the Socialist Party, Mussolini founded a new newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia (The People of Italy), which promoted nationalist and interventionist ideas.  

In 1919, after the war ended, he founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, the precursor to the National Fascist Party.

This group combined nationalist rhetoric with a promise to fight both the socialist threat and the inefficiencies of the liberal government.

The Fasci initially functioned as a loose coalition of nationalist and anti-socialist groups.

It attracted a diverse mix of war veterans, disillusioned socialists, and young radicals who opposed both the liberal state and the perceived threat of communism.

It had become large enough in size that in November 1921, it was rebranded as an official political party known as the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF).

In transforming the Fasci into a proper political group, Mussolini aimed to consolidate his influence and present a more unified front.

The National Fascist Party quickly became a powerful force. 

At its core, the Fascist ideology rejected both democracy and socialism, deeming them inadequate for addressing Italy's needs.

The party’s platform called for totalitarianism, a term that described the complete control of society and the state by a single party or leader.

To them, democracy weakened the nation by encouraging division and dissent.

Fascism emphasized the primacy of the nation over the individual, where loyalty to the state became the highest virtue.

The Fascists proposed to organize society into various professional groups, or ‘corporations’, each representing a sector of the economy and working together under state supervision.

It was thought that this structure would eliminate class conflict and ensure harmony between workers and employers, all while maintaining strict state control. 

More dangerously, the Fascists glorified violence and viewed it as a legitimate means of achieving their objectives, believing that conflict purified the nation and forged stronger unity.

The idea of spazio vitale, or ‘vital space’, also played a crucial role in their ideology.

This promoted the expansion of Italy’s territory to provide room for its growing population and to assert its rightful place among great powers. 

In the years leading up to the March on Rome, the liberal government in Italy faced growing weakness and instability.

Frequent changes in leadership and coalition governments undermined the state’s authority.

Between 1919 and 1922, Italy saw five different governments, each struggling to manage the country’s economic and social crises.

As these governments failed to deliver meaningful reforms, widespread dissatisfaction spread among Italians, who grew increasingly frustrated with their leaders' inability to address economic hardship and political fragmentation.

To many, the government appeared ineffectual, unable to prevent the rise of more radical alternatives. 

Amid this political fragility, the Biennio Rosso, or ‘Two Red Years’, from 1919 to 1920, intensified the fear of socialism and communism.

During this period, Italy experienced a wave of strikes, factory occupations, and land seizures led by socialists and anarchists.

Over 1.5 million workers participated in strikes, and 300 factories were occupied by workers demanding better conditions and wages.

Many Italians, particularly landowners and the middle class, feared a Bolshevik-style revolution.

With the Socialist Party gaining strength and the liberal government appearing powerless to stop the unrest, fear of radical change took hold.

This fear drove many to support more extreme measures to restore order and prevent a perceived socialist takeover. 

Unemployment rates soared to over 12% in 1920, and inflation rates surged, eroding the value of wages and savings.

The agricultural sector also faced significant challenges, with thousands of rural laborers striking or seizing land in protest.

Strikes paralyzed cities, and violence frequently erupted between socialist groups and their fascist opponents.

This climate of instability created fertile ground for Mussolini and the Fascist Party, who promised strong leadership and a return to national greatness.

By portraying themselves as defenders of order against the chaos of socialism and the failures of liberal democracy, the Fascists gained support from those desperate for stability and direction. 

By October 1922 Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party aimed to overthrow the existing government and replace it with a new, authoritarian regime.

To prepare, he and his closest advisers, including General Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Cesare Maria De Vecchi, and Michele Bianchi, coordinated the deployment of fascist militia units, known as the Blackshirts, across key locations in northern and central Italy.

They planned to converge on Rome from several points, to demonstrate both strength and unity.

On October 24, 1922, at a Fascist Party congress in Naples, Mussolini declared, “Either we are allowed to govern, or we will seize power by marching on Rome”. 

Italo Balbo led a contingent of Blackshirts from the north. Cesare Maria De Vecchi coordinated the fascist squads in Tuscany, while Michele Bianchi managed the propaganda efforts to rally support for the march.

Together, they worked to maintain discipline among the Blackshirts and to coordinate their movements toward Rome.

By October 27, approximately 30,000 Blackshirts had gathered at strategic points outside the city and were ready to advance. 

For Mussolini, he remained in Milan, waiting for news of the government’s response, and prepared to either advance or retreat based on the situation.

As the Blackshirts began their march on October 28, panic gripped the Italian government in Rome.

Prime Minister Luigi Facta requested a declaration of martial law to prevent the fascist forces from entering the city.

However, King Victor Emmanuel III hesitated. On October 28, faced with a choice between defending the fragile liberal state or allowing the Fascists to enter Rome, the king decided against signing the decree.

This decision effectively handed power to Mussolini. The king feared civil war and believed Mussolini could restore order.

On October 29, Mussolini received a telegram inviting him to Rome to form a new government.

The next day, he arrived in Rome, and the Blackshirts, now triumphant, paraded through the streets. 

After the March on Rome, Mussolini swiftly capitalized on his newfound power to become Prime Minister of Italy.

On October 30, 1922, King Victor Emmanuel III officially appointed him to the position, hoping that Mussolini could bring stability to the country.

Mussolini presented himself as a moderate leader who could work within the parliamentary system.

However, from the beginning, he had no intention of sharing power with the traditional political elites.

Instead, by exploiting the fear of socialism and the widespread desire for order, he began maneuvering to dismantle the existing democratic institutions. 

The establishment of a fascist government began almost immediately after Mussolini took office.

In November 1922, he convinced the Italian parliament to grant him emergency powers for one year, arguing that he needed these to address the country’s severe political and economic crises.

These powers allowed him to rule by decree, bypassing the democratic process.

Over the next few years, he took steps to consolidate his power further, systematically removing any checks on his authority.

The Acerbo Law of 1923 changed the electoral system to benefit the largest party, which enabled the Fascists to secure a commanding majority in the 1924 elections.  

Mussolini then moved quickly to suppress opposition, using violence and intimidation to silence critics and eliminate political rivals.

He targeted the press first, imposing strict censorship and shutting down opposition newspapers.

By 1925, he had begun to rule as a dictator, following the murder of socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, who had openly criticized Mussolini and the Fascists in parliament.

This event caused an initial backlash, but Mussolini used it to justify even harsher measures against his opponents.

In 1926, he banned all political parties except the Fascist Party. This effectively ended parliamentary democracy in Italy.

Over the following years, Mussolini introduced a series of policies designed to strengthen his grip on power, including the establishment of a secret police force, the OVRA, to monitor and eliminate dissent. 

Mussolini's rise to power succeeded due to significant support from various social groups who saw in him a potential savior for Italy.

The industrialists, fearing the rise of socialism and labor unrest, threw their backing behind Mussolini, believing he could protect their interests.

The military, too, viewed Mussolini favorably, as they saw in the Fascists a force capable of restoring order and national pride.

Moreover, the Catholic Church, led by Pope Pius XI, found common ground with Mussolini over their mutual opposition to socialism and secularism.

In exchange for favorable policies, such as religious education in schools and state recognition of Catholicism, the Church provided its tacit support. 

Mussolini's political opponents, by contrast, failed to mount an effective resistance to his rise.

The liberal politicians, including figures like Giovanni Giolitti and Luigi Facta, underestimated Mussolini and believed they could contain or outmaneuver him through political deals and compromises.

This naivety weakened their ability to respond decisively. Additionally, the socialist and communist factions, though strong in numbers, were deeply divided and failed to form a united front against the growing fascist threat.

They often focused more on infighting and ideological purity than on countering Mussolini’s growing influence.

This division played directly into Mussolini’s hands, which allowed him to portray himself as the only viable alternative to chaos and revolutionary upheaval. 

For Mussolini, he also relied heavily on the Blackshirts to intimidate and suppress dissent.

These paramilitary squads used violence and terror to break up strikes, attack political opponents, and create a climate of fear.

In towns and cities across Italy, they targeted socialist and communist groups, disrupting their meetings and beating their members.

By fostering this atmosphere of intimidation and suppressing opposition voices, Mussolini ensured that any potential resistance to his rule was quickly silenced. 

Socially, the regime imposed strict control over public and private life, promoting a culture of obedience and loyalty to the state.

Mussolini’s rhetoric glorified the state above all else, demanding that every citizen put the interests of the nation first.

Mussolini’s establishment of a totalitarian state resulted in a severe loss of civil liberties.

The regime enacted laws that curtailed freedom of speech, assembly, and the press.

Independent newspapers were shut down, and journalists were forced to adhere to strict government censorship.

Political prisoners filled Italy’s jails, and ordinary citizens lived in fear of denunciation and arrest.

Over time, these repressive measures eroded the social fabric of Italy. 

In foreign policy, Mussolini sought to assert Italy’s place as a dominant power in Europe.

In 1936, he forged the Rome-Berlin Axis with Nazi Germany. This aligned Italy with Adolf Hitler’s expansionist ambitions.

This alliance aimed to counterbalance the influence of democratic nations and to promote a new order based on fascist ideals.

By so doing, Mussolini hoped to achieve his vision of a new Roman Empire that stretched across the Mediterranean and beyond.

However, this alignment also dragged Italy into World War II and the catastrophic fallout that followed.