The most remarkable inventions, creations, and ideas from Ancient Egypt

Hieroglyphs, a system of writing using intricate pictorial symbols, were the cornerstone of Egyptian written culture.

It enabled the documentation of historical events, religious texts, and administrative records.

As far as archaeologists can determine, the earliest hieroglyphic writing dates back to around 3200 BC, in the era known as the Predynastic Period.

The oldest extant hieroglyphs were simple pictograms, which represented objects or concepts.

However, over time, they would evolve into a complex system of over 700 symbols.

Each symbol could represent a single sound, a complete idea, or identify an object.

When combined, they were used to convey incredibly complex thoughts and narratives.

It wasn't until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799, were we able to later decipher this ancient script.

Interestingly, hieroglyphic writing was both a functional tool for communication and a sacred act.

In fact, it was considered to be a means of immortalizing the words of the pharaohs and the gods.

Those who knew how to read and write were called scribes: learned men who were highly respected in Egyptian society.

In order to attain this knowledge though, they underwent rigorous training in the temples.

Here they were taught the functioning of the state, for recording laws, maintaining administrative records, and penning religious texts.

Hieroglyphs inspired the development of other writing systems, including the Phoenician alphabet, which, in turn, laid the foundation for Greek and Latin scripts.

As a result, the echoes of the ancient Egyptian scribes can be heard even today, every time we put pen to paper or type on a keyboard.

Papyrus, which is a material similar to thick paper, was made from the pith of the papyrus plant.

This plant was a reed that grew abundantly only along the banks of the Nile.

The process of making papyrus was particularly difficult and labor-intensive. Firstly, the plant was harvested and the pith was cut into thin strips.

These were then soaked, flattened, and layered in a crisscross pattern.

The layers were then pressed and dried to form a smooth, durable writing surface.

It appears that papyrus was invented around 3000 BC, not long after the first hieroglyphs.

It was quickly recognised to be a great discovery. It was lighter, more portable, and easier to produce in large quantities than clay tablets or animal skins.

Therefore, it made an ideal medium for almost every writing need.

As papyrus production grew, Egypt exported it across the Mediterranean, becoming a staple writing material in ancient Greece and Rome.

Alongside the development of papyrus, the ancient Egyptians also pioneered the creation of ink.

To achieve this, they used a mixture of soot or other organic materials for color, combined with a binder, like gum arabic, and water.

The resulting ink was surprisingly durable and resistant to smudging. As a result, it became ideal for writing on papyrus.

Even though the Egyptians developed a range of colors, black and red were the most commonly used.

Most of the time, black ink was used for the main body of text and red was chosen for headings, annotations, or emphasis.

When used in combination with papyrus, it helped the administration of the Egyptian state.

Moreover, it played a crucial role in the preservation of Egyptian culture, as many of the papyri have survived to this day.

The Egyptian numerical system was a base-10 system, similar to the one we use today.

A crucial difference though, is that it was not positional, meaning the placement of a digit did not affect its value.

They used hieroglyphs to represent numbers, with different symbols for 1, 10, 100, 1,000, and so on.

This system was simple yet effective. Egyptians used it to perform complex calculations and solve a wide range of mathematical problems.

Geometry, in particular, was an area where the ancient Egyptians excelled. The annual flooding of the Nile, which was crucial for agriculture, washed away boundary markers between fields.

As a consequence, this necessitated the development of geometry to re-establish these boundaries.

In a more mundane way, the Egyptian mathematical system developed methods to calculate areas of fields, volumes of granaries, and slopes of pyramids.

The most famous record of their complex numbering system is found on the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which dates from around 1650 BCE.

It contains problems related to fractions, algebra, geometry, and possibly even trigonometry.

Notably, it includes an approximation of the value of pi, indicating that the Egyptians had a rudimentary understanding of this fundamental mathematical constant.

According to the papyrus, the Egyptians used a system called seked to describe the slope of a pyramid, which is conceptually similar to the tangent in trigonometry

The mathematical and geometric principles were crucially important to the construction of monumental architecture, such as pyramids and obelisks.

The ancient Egyptians were superb pioneers in the field of medicine. In particular, their understanding of the human body, diseases, treatments, and medical procedures was remarkably advanced for their time.

The Edwin Smith Papyrus, from around 1600 BCE, is one of the most significant medical documents from ancient Egypt.

It provides a detailed description of surgical procedures, treatments for various ailments, and even a rudimentary understanding of the body's organ systems.

Imhotep, the architect behind the Step Pyramid of Djoser (c. 2667–2648 BCE), was also revered as a physician, with his medical knowledge becoming legendary in later periods of Egyptian and Greek history.

Egyptian medicine also recognized the importance of mental health. This is found in another surviving text from c. 1550 BCE: The Ebers Papyrus.

It lists over 700 medical treatments and herbal remedies, and includes references to depression and dementia, indicating an understanding of a range of modern psychological conditions.

The ancient Egyptians were also skilled in surgery. They performed a variety of procedures, including wound stitching, bone setting, and even trepanation - a procedure that involves drilling a hole in the skull.

To do this, they also created and used a range of surgical tools, many of which are very similar to those used in modern surgery.

Furthermore, the Egyptians were among the first to establish a professional class of physicians.

These physicians underwent rigorous training and were highly respected in society.

They were organized into specialties, such as dentistry, ophthalmology, and gastroenterology.

Later in history, ancient Egyptian medicine texts were translated into Greek and Arabic, which spread their knowledge across the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

Many of their principles and practices were adopted and further developed by subsequent civilizations, contributing to the evolution of medicine as we know it today.

The Egyptian solar calendar was divided into twelve months, each made up of thirty days, with an additional five days added at the end of the year to account for the discrepancy between the lunar and solar cycles.

This made a total of 365 days, a system that was more accurate than many contemporary calendars.

The Egyptians were aware that this system was not perfect—it fell about a quarter of a day short of the actual solar year.

But it was not until much later that leap years were introduced to correct this discrepancy.

Also, the calendar was deeply influenced by the Egyptians' religious beliefs and agricultural practices.

As a result, the year was divided into three seasons: each linked to the cycle of the Nile: Akhet (the inundation), Peret (the growing season), and Shemu (the harvest season).

Therefore, these seasons helped the Egyptians plan their agricultural activities.

Remarkably, the Egyptian calendar also included a system for tracking the lunar cycle.

This lunar calendar ran concurrently with the solar calendar, with each month beginning with the new moon.

The civil (solar) calendar was used for administrative purposes, while the lunar calendar had more religious functions.

This clever dual system allowed the Egyptians to synchronize their religious rituals with both the solar and lunar cycles.

Ultimately, a version of the Egyptian calendar was adopted by the Romans and became the Julian calendar.

This was later refined into the Gregorian calendar that we use today.

Thus, every time we check the date or plan for the future, we are using a system that has its roots in the ancient civilization of Egypt.

The pyramids were built as tombs for the pharaohs, and were feats of engineering that required precise planning, organization, and execution.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, which is the largest of these structures, was built with over two million stone blocks, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons.

It originally stood at 146.6 meters (481 feet) tall, making it the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, with a base covering 13 acres.

Despite the immense scale and complexity of this project, the pyramid was constructed with remarkable precision: it has an error margin of less than 1% in its base's alignment.

Even after 4000 years, the construction techniques used by the Egyptians are still a subject of debate among archaeologists.

The fact that they did not have access to iron tools or wheeled vehicles makes their achievements even more impressive.

At the present, it's believed that they used a combination of simple machines, such as levers and ramps, along with a large workforce and careful planning, to construct these monumental structures.

In addition to the pyramids, the ancient Egyptians also built a variety of other structures.

The Temple of Karnak, for example, is a vast complex of sanctuaries, pylons, and obelisks dedicated to the Theban gods and the greater glory of Egypt's pharaohs.

Its grandeur and complexity reflect the significant resources that the ancient Egyptians devoted to their religious institutions and was expanded by multiple pharaohs over nearly 2000 years.

The influence of Egyptian architecture can be seen in many subsequent civilizations, from the Greeks and Romans to the Renaissance and beyond.

The use of columns, the emphasis on symmetry and proportion, and the integration of architecture with art and religion are all elements that have been adopted and adapted by later cultures.

The Nile River, with its predictable annual flooding, provided a natural irrigation system that replenished the soil with nutrient-rich silt.

However, to maximize agricultural productivity and support their growing population, the Egyptians needed to control and distribute the Nile's waters more effectively.

This led to the development of a range of irrigation techniques and tools, including canals, dikes, reservoirs, and devices like the shaduf and the nilometer.

The shaduf, a simple but effective tool, was used to lift water from the Nile or its canals to the fields.

It consisted of a long pole with a bucket at one end and a counterweight at the other, allowing farmers to irrigate their fields efficiently.

The nilometer was a device used to measure the Nile's water level during the annual flood.

This information was crucial for predicting agricultural yields and planning for potential famines.

The Egyptians also developed a network of canals and dikes to direct the flow of water to their fields.

During the flood season, water was allowed to flow into the fields in order to deposit a layer of fertile silt.

The water was then naturally drained off into reservoirs or back into the river, ready for the planting season.

These irrigation systems transformed Egypt into one of the ancient world's breadbaskets, producing a surplus of crops, such as wheat and barley.

This surplus supported a population of several million people, fueled trade with neighboring regions, and allowed the Egyptian civilization to flourish.

The ancient Egyptians were among the first civilizations to develop the concept of a centralized state.

This concept was born out of the need to manage resources, coordinate large-scale projects, and maintain order in a society that was growing in size and complexity.

Specifically, the Egyptian state was known for its high degree of centralization, with the Pharaoh at the top of the hierarchy.

In this system, the Pharaoh was a religious figure: considered to be a living god.

This divine status gave the Pharaoh absolute authority, reinforcing the stability and unity of the state.

Beneath the Pharaoh was a complex bureaucracy that managed the affairs of the state.

It was organized into various departments, each responsible for agriculture, taxation, construction, or law enforcement.

The officials in charge of these departments were usually members of the nobility who were educated in the temples and loyal to the Pharaoh.

This vast and complex centralized system ultimately allowed the Egyptians to undertake large-scale projects, such as the construction of the pyramids and the development of the irrigation systems mentioned above.