What, or who, were the Neanderthals?

The story of the Neanderthals begins around 800,000 years ago, with the emergence of a group of hominids known as the Homo heidelbergensis.

These early humans, who lived in Africa and Western Eurasia, are considered the common ancestors of both Neanderthals and modern humans.

The split between these two lineages is believed to have occurred around 600,000 to 800,000 years ago, when some Homo heidelbergensis populations remained in Africa (eventually giving rise to Homo sapiens) while others migrated north into Europe and Asia.

In the harsh climates of Ice Age Europe, these northern Homo heidelbergensis populations evolved into the Neanderthals, or Homo neanderthalensis.

The first Neanderthals appeared around 400,000 years ago, and they continued to evolve and adapt to their environment over the next several hundred thousand years.

Fossil evidence shows that Neanderthals were well adapted to the cold, with short, robust bodies and large nasal cavities to warm and humidify the cold, dry air.

However, Neanderthals were not a static species; they continued to evolve over time.

Later Neanderthals showing signs of more advanced tool use and possibly even symbolic behavior.

Then, around 130,000 years ago, during a period known as the last interglacial, Neanderthals expanded their range from Western Europe into the Middle East and Central Asia.

This expansion coincided with a period of increased innovation in Neanderthal culture, including the development of new types of stone tools and the use of fire.

Neanderthals had a number of physical characteristics that set them apart from their hominid relatives.

These traits were adaptations to the harsh climates of Ice Age Europe and Asia.

They reflect the Neanderthals' remarkable ability to survive and thrive in challenging environments.

One of the most distinctive features of Neanderthals was their robust physique.

They were shorter and stockier than modern humans, with males standing about 164 to 168 cm (approximately 5.4 to 5.5 feet) tall and females about 152 to 156 cm (approximately 5 to 5.1 feet) tall.

This compact body shape helped to conserve heat, a crucial advantage in the cold climates where Neanderthals lived.

In addition, their limbs were also shorter and more muscular, probably the result of a physically demanding lifestyle.

Also, Neanderthals had a large, elongated skull with a low, receding forehead and prominent brow ridges.

Their faces were broad and projecting, with large nasal cavities that were likely an adaptation to the cold, dry air of their environment.

This is because the large nose would have warmed and humidified the air before it reached the lungs, reducing the risk of respiratory infections.

Inside their skulls, Neanderthals had a brain that was as large as, or even larger than, that of modern humans, suggesting a high degree of cognitive ability.

Also, they had large front teeth, which may have been used as a third hand for holding objects.

Interestingly, wear patterns on their teeth suggest that they used their mouths in tool use and processing of animal hides.

In addition, their molars show signs of heavy wear, indicating a diet that included hard, abrasive foods.

The Neanderthals were a remarkably adaptable species, capable of surviving in a variety of habitats across a wide geographic range.

Their territory spanned much of Eurasia, from the Atlantic coasts of Europe to the mountains of Central Asia and the fertile plains of the Middle East.

The earliest Neanderthals appeared in Europe around 400,000 years ago, and for much of their history, they were primarily a European species.

They thrived in the temperate forests and grasslands that covered much of the continent during the warmer interglacial periods.

In addition, they lived in the tundra-like environments that prevailed during the colder glacial periods.

Despite their adaptability, Neanderthals were not present in all parts of Eurasia.

For example, it appears that they did not colonize the far north of Europe, likely due to the extreme cold and lack of resources.

Similarly, they did not reach the far east of Asia, where another hominid species, the Denisovans, were present.

The reasons for these geographic limits are still a matter of debate among scientists.

While our understanding of the culture and social structure of Neanderthal life is still evolving, archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that Neanderthals had a complex social organization.

Neanderthal groups, or bands, were likely small, consisting of perhaps a few dozen individuals.

These bands were probably based on close kinship ties, with cooperation and sharing of resources playing a crucial role in their survival.

The high incidence of healed injuries in Neanderthal skeletons suggests that they cared for their sick and injured, indicating a level of social cohesion and empathy.

Neanderthals were skilled toolmakers. They developed a distinctive stone tool technology known as the Mousterian, which involved the careful shaping of flint cores to produce a variety of tools.

This included scrapers, points, and hand axes.

Such tools were used for a range of tasks, from butchering animals to processing plant materials.

There is also evidence that Neanderthals used fire, both for cooking and for warmth.

They may have even used fire in their toolmaking, as some Neanderthal sites show signs of heat-treated flint.

The control and use of fire would have been a significant technological achievement, allowing Neanderthals to expand their diet, extend their daily activities into the night, and survive in cold environments.

Perhaps the most intriguing evidence of Neanderthal culture comes from their burial practices.

At several sites, Neanderthals have been found buried in what appear to be intentional graves, sometimes with animal bones or other objects.

These burials suggest that Neanderthals had a concept of death and perhaps even beliefs about an afterlife.

Recent discoveries have also hinted at the possibility of symbolic behavior in Neanderthals.

They include the use of pigments, such as ochre, possibly for body decoration or artwork, and the creation of enigmatic structures from stalagmites in a cave in France.

While the interpretation of these findings is still controversial, they raise the tantalizing possibility that Neanderthals had a symbolic culture, much like our own.

Archaeological and isotopic evidence suggests that they were primarily carnivorous, with a heavy reliance on large mammals.

Neanderthals were skilled hunters, capable of bringing down large and dangerous game.

Their prey included a variety of Ice Age megafauna, such as woolly mammoths, woolly rhinoceros, bison, and reindeer.

Hunting these animals would have required a high degree of planning and cooperation, suggesting that Neanderthals had sophisticated social and cognitive abilities.

In some cases, they may have ambushed their prey at close range, using thrusting spears.

In other cases, they may have used a strategy known as "surround and drive," in which a group of hunters would surround a herd of animals and drive them towards a kill zone.

In addition to hunting, Neanderthals also scavenged from the kills of other predators.

This behavior is suggested by cut marks on animal bones, which indicate that the meat was removed with stone tools, and by the presence of carnivore teeth marks on bones that also bear Neanderthal cut marks.

While meat was a crucial part of the Neanderthal diet, they also consumed a variety of plant foods.

Microscopic plant remains found in Neanderthal dental plaque suggest that they ate a range of plants, including nuts, berries, and tubers.

In some cases, these plant foods appear to have been cooked, indicating that Neanderthals had knowledge of food processing techniques.

The diet of Neanderthals may have also included marine resources. At some coastal sites, Neanderthals have been found with shellfish and marine mammals, suggesting that they exploited marine environments for food.

The two species coexisted in Eurasia for several thousand years, and there is compelling evidence of both conflict and cooperation, as well as interbreeding between them.

Homo sapiens first arrived in Eurasia around 45,000 to 50,000 years ago, migrating out of Africa and into the territories inhabited by Neanderthals.

Some researchers suggest that competition with Homo sapiens may have contributed to the extinction of Neanderthals.

This competition could have taken the form of direct conflict, or it could have been more indirect, with Homo sapiens outcompeting Neanderthals for resources.

However, there is also evidence of more peaceful interactions between the two species.

Archaeological sites show that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens used similar types of stone tools, suggesting that they may have learned from each other.

There are also instances of Neanderthal sites being reoccupied by Homo sapiens, indicating a degree of cultural continuity.

The extinction of the Neanderthals, which occurred around 40,000 years ago, is a topic of enduring fascination and ongoing research.

There are several theories about why the Neanderthals went extinct. One of the most widely discussed theories is competition with Homo sapiens.

According to this theory, Homo sapiens, with their advanced technology and complex social structures, may have outcompeted Neanderthals for resources.

Another theory is that the Neanderthals were unable to adapt to changing climates.

The period when the Neanderthals went extinct was marked by severe and rapid climate fluctuations, with cold, dry periods alternating with warmer, wetter periods.

These fluctuations could have disrupted the ecosystems that the Neanderthals relied on, making it harder for them to find food and other resources.

A third theory is that the Neanderthals were wiped out by diseases brought by Homo sapiens.

As modern humans migrated out of Africa, they may have carried with them pathogens to which the Neanderthals had no immunity.

This "disease hypothesis" is still speculative, but it is supported by the fact that contact between human populations has often resulted in the spread of diseases.

One of the most fascinating discoveries in recent years is the presence of Neanderthal DNA in the genomes of modern humans.

This genetic legacy is a testament to the close relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, and it provides a unique window into our shared evolutionary history.

Modern humans outside of Africa carry about 1-2% Neanderthal DNA in their genomes.

This Neanderthal DNA is the result of interbreeding between the two species, which likely occurred in the Middle East, shortly after Homo sapiens left Africa, and possibly also later in Europe.

The Neanderthal DNA in modern humans is not evenly distributed throughout the genome.

Instead, it is found in specific regions, suggesting that some Neanderthal genes were beneficial and were selected for over time.

These genes are associated with a variety of traits, including skin and hair color, immune response, and even neurological traits.

For example, some variants of the MC1R gene, which is involved in skin and hair pigmentation, are thought to have been inherited from Neanderthals and may have helped modern humans adapt to the lower light levels in Europe.

On the other hand, there are also regions of the modern human genome that are notably devoid of Neanderthal DNA.

These "deserts" of Neanderthal ancestry may represent regions where Neanderthal genes were detrimental and were selected against.

For example, genes involved in male fertility are notably lacking in Neanderthal ancestry, suggesting that male offspring of Neanderthal-Homo sapiens unions may have been less fertile.

The presence of Neanderthal DNA in modern humans has important implications for our understanding of human evolution.

It shows that the story of human evolution is not a simple tree, with branches neatly splitting off from each other, but rather a complex web of interconnections.

It also challenges the traditional view of Neanderthals as a separate, primitive species, and instead paints a picture of Neanderthals as our close relatives, with whom we shared a common history and a common genetic heritage.