The mysterious reason why pyramids appear in so many ancient cultures around the world

In its most basic architectural sense, a pyramid is a monumental structure with a square or triangular base and sloping sides that meet in a point at the top.

While the quintessential image of a pyramid might be smooth-faced, some pyramids, like those of ancient Mesopotamia or Mesoamerica, are stepped, with a series of terraces ascending to the summit.

Others, like the Nubian pyramids, have a far steeper incline and smaller base than their Egyptian counterparts.

Some pyramids have flat tops, while others end in a point or even a small temple.

Regardless of these variations, the common thread running through all pyramid structures is the geometric form that gives them their name.

Interestingly, pyramids across different cultures and times also share certain functional and symbolic characteristics.

First of all, they were typically built as monumental edifices: often serving as tombs for rulers, temples for gods, or centers of ritual and ceremony.

This common function reflects a shared understanding of pyramids as links between the earthly realm and the divine.

Their towering heights can be seen as bridges between humans and heaven.

Secondly, the construction of pyramids often represented a significant investment of resources.

As such, it reflected the wealth and power of the individuals or societies that built them.

Before the rise of the Egyptian pyramids, ancient Mesopotamian civilizations had already been constructing their own monumental edifices known as ziggurats.

These stepped pyramids were an integral part of the region's culture, the heart of their cities and the center of their religious life.

Originally, ziggurats emerged around the 3rd millennium BCE, in modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, and Turkey.

Unlike the stone used to construct Egyptian pyramids, ziggurats were built primarily from mud-brick due to the natural resources available in the region.

This construction material has led to fewer surviving examples, as mud-brick is less durable than stone.

Architecturally, ziggurats were terraced, with each level smaller than the one below, resulting in a stepped appearance.

Often, they were rectangular in shape with sizable staircases or ramps leading up to the top.

The uppermost level typically housed a shrine or temple, reinforcing their primary role as religious structures.

It was believed that the gods descended to the temple at the peak to commune with the priests and priestesses.

One of the best-preserved ziggurats is the Great Ziggurat of Ur. It was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu in the 21st century BCE.

This enormous structure, which once stood over 30 meters high, was part of a temple complex dedicated to the moon god Nanna.

When the word "pyramid" is mentioned, the first image that springs to mind for most people is likely the majestic pyramids of ancient Egypt.

These were mostly built between 2700 and 1700 BCE during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.

However, the evolution of Egyptian pyramid construction can be seen as a journey toward architectural perfection.

The earliest form, the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, built around 2700 BCE under the direction of the famed architect Imhotep, was a radical departure from the traditional mastaba tombs of the time.

Its design, comprised of six terraces stacked atop the other, marked the first colossal stone building and the first pyramid in Egypt.

Over time, the design of the pyramids evolved. The Bent Pyramid, built under the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, was the first attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid but resulted in a change of angle partway up, giving it a bent appearance.

Eventually, builders achieved the true pyramid shape, a seamless, smooth-sided pyramid, with the Red Pyramid, also constructed under Sneferu.

The pinnacle of this architectural evolution is undoubtedly the Great Pyramid of Giza, built for Pharaoh Khufu around 2580–2560 BCE.

As the largest of the three Giza pyramids, for thousands of years it was the tallest man-made structure in the world, and was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The precision and skill involved in its construction continues to astound modern engineers and archaeologists.

The primary function of Egyptian pyramids was as tombs for pharaohs and their consorts.

They were part of larger complexes that included mortuary temples, smaller subsidiary pyramids, and other structures necessary for funerary rituals.

Interestingly, the pyramids were meant to symbolize the primordial mound of creation in Egyptian mythology.

Also, they were believed to assist the deceased pharaoh in his ascension to the afterlife.

Despite popular misconceptions about the use of slaves, there is a broad consensus among scholars that the pyramids were built by a 20,000 strong workforce of paid laborers and skilled craftsmen.

The pyramids of the Americas, spanning from the northern reaches of North America down to the southern tip of South America, were built by civilizations including the Maya, Aztec, and Inca, as well as the ancient mound-builders of North America.

Each of these structures were key buildings of some of the most advanced pre-Columbian societies.

In Mesoamerica, civilizations such as the Maya and Aztec constructed impressive stepped pyramids that served as religious and civic centers.

The Maya, whose civilization stretched across modern-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, built pyramids that were typically part of larger city complexes.

Notable examples include the Pyramid of the Magician at Uxmal and the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque, the latter which served both as a temple and as the tomb of the ruler Pakal the Great.

The Aztec civilization, based in the Valley of Mexico, also built striking pyramids, such as the Templo Mayor in their capital city of Tenochtitlán.

This pyramid was dedicated to the gods Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli. It was a double-staircase pyramid, with each staircase leading to a shrine for one of the two gods.

Also, North America also boasts a tradition of pyramid-like structures, particularly in the form of earthworks built by the Mississippian culture.

The most famous of these is Monks Mound at Cahokia, in modern-day Illinois. This massive structure, built of layers of earth, is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork in the Americas.

Further south, in the Andean region of South America, the Moche and Inca civilizations constructed their own pyramid-like structures.

The Moche, who lived along the northern coast of modern-day Peru, built adobe brick pyramids, the most famous of which is the Pyramid of the Sun.

Finally, the Inca, known for their impressive stonework, built structures that, while not pyramids in the strict sense, incorporated similar geometric and architectural principles.

Despite the considerable geographical and cultural distance from the pyramid-building cultures of the Old World, the civilizations of the Americas independently developed their own traditions of pyramid construction.

However, unlike the primarily funerary purpose of Egyptian pyramids, the pyramids of the Americas often served a more diverse range of functions, including as temples, palaces, and centers of civic life. 

While the pyramids of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Americas are among the most well-known, these magnificent structures can be found in other parts of the world as well, demonstrating the remarkable breadth of pyramid-building cultures.

In the region of ancient Nubia, now modern Sudan, a civilization contemporary with ancient Egypt constructed its own style of pyramids.

The Nubian pyramids, built between 2600 BCE and 300 CE, were generally smaller and steeper than their Egyptian counterparts.

Primarily built as tombs for the rulers of the kingdoms of Kush and Meroë, these pyramids exhibit a unique fusion of Egyptian and indigenous Nubian architectural styles.

While less famous than the Egyptian pyramids, over 200 of these Nubian pyramids still stand today, a testament to a rich and often overlooked civilization.

Ancient Greece and Rome, renowned for their architectural achievements, also dabbled in pyramid construction, albeit on a much smaller scale.

The Pyramid of Cestius in Rome, built between 18 and 12 BCE, was the tomb for the magistrate Gaius Cestius.

In ancient China, there exist structures often referred to as 'pyramids', though they differ significantly from the pyramidal form seen in Egypt or Mesoamerica.

The tombs of emperors from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) to the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) were often constructed as massive earthen mounds.

The most famous of these is the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, known for its army of Terracotta Warriors.

While these structures lack the geometric precision of true pyramids, their monumental scale and purpose as royal tombs align them with the broader global tradition of pyramid building.

Despite these differences, there are intriguing parallels in the symbolic significance of pyramids.

Across many cultures, pyramids were seen as links between the earthly and divine realms, their towering heights acting as bridges or stairways to the heavens.

The construction techniques varied greatly, influenced by available resources, technological advancements, and societal organization.

While it's tempting to draw broad conclusions or look for universal human traits, we must also respect and appreciate the distinct cultural, religious, and societal systems that gave rise to each of these remarkable structures. 

While there is no consensus on why this particular form of architecture appears so frequently in ancient civilizations, several theories have been proposed.

One theory is the structural stability of the pyramid shape. The wide base and narrowing top provide a stable structure that can withstand the test of time.

This is evident in the fact that many ancient pyramids remain standing thousands of years after their construction, even after other types of structures have crumbled.

A second theory relates to the symbolic significance of the pyramid shape. Many ancient cultures associated the shape of the pyramid with spiritual or celestial concepts.

In Egypt, the pyramid represented the primordial mound from which life sprang.

In Mesoamerica, pyramids were seen as man-made mountains, connecting the earthly realm with the divine.

The shape of the pyramid could thus have been chosen for its potent symbolic resonance, providing a physical manifestation of these cultures' cosmologies.

It's also worth noting the theory of independent invention, which posits that the pyramid form arose independently in different cultures due to similar sets of circumstances, needs, or influences.

While some have proposed the idea of trans-oceanic contact between these cultures, there is currently no widely accepted archaeological evidence to support such claims.

These theories are not mutually exclusive, and it's likely that a combination of these factors contributed to the prevalence of pyramid structures in different cultures. 

The theory that extraterrestrial beings visited Earth in ancient times and contributed to the construction of monumental structures like pyramids is a popular theme in pseudoscience and popular culture.

Proponents of these 'ancient astronaut' theories often point to the remarkable architectural feats of ancient civilizations and argue that they must have required knowledge or technology beyond what those societies could have possessed.

However, there is no scientifically accepted evidence to support these theories.

Archaeologists, historians, and scientists broadly agree that the pyramids and other monumental structures of the ancient world were constructed by human societies using the tools, techniques, and knowledge available to them at the time.

While it's true that many aspects of these structures are impressive and that we don't fully understand all the techniques used in their construction, this doesn't necessarily imply extraterrestrial involvement.

In fact, many of the supposed 'mysteries' about pyramid construction are the subject of ongoing research, and scholars have made significant strides in understanding how these remarkable buildings could have been constructed using ancient technology.