The rise and fall of New Spain, once the greatest power in the Americas

Before the Spanish arrived, much of central Mexico, the region that became New Spain, was controlled by the sophisticated Aztec culture, centered in the city of Tenochtitlan.

But they were far from the only people group in the region. The Maya flourished in the Yucatán Peninsula, while the Mixtec and Zapotec peoples thrived in Oaxaca.

Each of these cultures had developed unique writing systems and impressive architectural achievements. They were all connected through various trade networks, through which they exchanged goods and information.

Further to the north, the Tarascans maintained a powerful kingdom in Michoacán, which was actively resisting Aztec expansion. 

Then, in 1519, Hernán Cortés landed on the eastern coast of Mexico near present-day Veracruz. He came with a small force of about 600 men, 16 horses, and several cannons.

From the coast, Cortés began his march inland toward the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Along the way, he forged critical miliary alliances with indigenous groups who had long resented Aztec domination. 

On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his men entered Tenochtitlan, where they were initially received by Emperor Moctezuma II with cautious hospitality.

The Spanish marveled at the city's splendor and its advanced infrastructure. However, tensions quickly escalated as Cortés sought to assert control over the Aztecs.

He captured Moctezuma, hoping to use him as a puppet ruler. In June 1520, the situation deteriorated when the Spanish massacred Aztec nobles during a religious festival. 

The Aztecs rebelled, leading to the infamous Noche Triste on June 30, 1520. The Spanish attempted to flee the city under cover of darkness, suffering heavy losses as they fought their way out.

By 1521, Cortés regrouped with reinforcements and laid siege to Tenochtitlan. After months of brutal fighting and a devastating smallpox outbreak, the city fell on August 13, 1521.

The Aztec Empire was over. 

The establishment of New Spain began with the formal declaration of the Viceroyalty in 1535. Antonio de Mendoza was appointed as the very first Viceroy and he governed from Mexico City, the former Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, which had been rebuilt as the new seat of Spanish power.

Through his administration, the Spanish Crown aimed to consolidate control over the vast territories they had conquered. 

Religious conversion was the cornerstone of Spanish colonization. And to facilitate this, Franciscan, Dominican, and Jesuit missionaries spread across the territories, establishing missions in places like California, Texas, and New Mexico.

These missions aimed to convert indigenous populations to Christianity and integrate them into the colonial society.

Furthermore, the Spanish built grand cathedrals, such as the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City.  

As a result, the Catholic religion became a central aspect of life in New Spain. The Church wielded immense power and influence, as they established missions, schools, and hospitals across the territory.

However, as indigenous populations were converted to Christianity, they often blended their traditional beliefs with Catholic practices.

This syncretism resulted in unique cultural expressions, such as the Day of the Dead, which combined indigenous and Spanish customs. 

In addition to political control, the Spanish sought to exploit the region's resources. Silver mining became the economic backbone of New Spain, with significant deposits found in Zacatecas and Guanajuato.

By the late 16th century, these regions produced over 50% of the world's silver supply. Consequently, this influx of wealth transformed New Spain into an economic powerhouse within the Spanish Empire. 

The Spanish government also established encomiendas. These were programs where Spanish settlers received large tracts of land and the right to extract labor from indigenous peoples.

This system led to harsh conditions and significant population declines among the native inhabitants. 

Agriculture was also one of the most crucial parts of the colonial economy. Large estates, known as haciendas, became the backbone of farming production.

They grew crops such as maize, wheat, and sugarcane, which were vital both for local consumption and export. In addition to food crops, New Spain's fertile lands supported extensive livestock farming.

With thousands of cattle, sheep, and horses, these ranches supplied meat, hides, and other products to the colony and beyond. 

Society and culture in New Spain quickly became a blend of Spanish and indigenous influences. However, the social hierarchy was rigid and deeply stratified.

At the top were the peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain who held the most powerful positions in government and the Church.

Beneath them were the criollos, people of Spanish descent born in the Americas, who were often wealthy landowners and merchants.

With limited access to the highest offices, criollos often resented their exclusion from systems of power. 

Below these groups were the mestizos, individuals of mixed Spanish and indigenous heritage. Mestizos formed a significant portion of the population and played various roles in society, from artisans to small-scale traders.

Importantly, through their mixed heritage, they bridged the cultural divide between the Spanish and indigenous worlds. 

Indigenous peoples, or indios, remained a substantial part of the population, though they faced significant social and economic disadvantages.

Under Spanish rule, they were often subjected to tribute payments and forced labor. However, many indigenous communities retained elements of their traditional cultures, languages, and social structures.

Ultimately, they played a vital role in the agricultural economy of New Spain. 

The expansion of New Spain’s land control began soon after its establishment. It was primarily driven by the desire for further wealth and strategic advantage.

So, Spanish explorers and settlers moved northward and established settlements in what is now the southwestern United States.

In 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led an expedition in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Gold. His journey took him through present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.

Although he did not find the fabled cities, his expedition prepared the way for further exploration and colonization. 

In the southeast, Hernando de Soto explored the regions that are now Florida, Georgia, and Alabama between 1539 and 1542.

These expeditions suffered in the harsh conditions and resistance from indigenous populations. Furthermore, Spanish missions and presidios (forts) were established to secure these territories and convert indigenous peoples.

For example, San Antonio, founded in 1718, became a key military and mission outpost in Texas. 

To the south, Spanish forces conquered Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and incorporated these regions into the Viceroyalty.

Additionally, the conquest of the Philippines in 1565 linked New Spain to Asia, creating a trans-Pacific trade route.

This expansion brought new resources and wealth into the colony, which enhanced its economic power. 

As Spanish power and influence spread, there was growing discontent among indigenous and mestizo populations.

In 1680, the Pueblo Revolt in present-day New Mexico began one of the most significant uprisings. Led by a Tewa religious leader named Po'pay, the Pueblo people rose against Spanish rule.

They managed to expel the Spanish from the region for 12 years. 

In addition, there were several mestizo and criollo revolts. The most notable was the Mexican War of Independence, which began in 1810.

Father Miguel Hidalgo, a criollo priest, issued the Grito de Dolores, calling for an end to Spanish rule. His cry for independence sparked a widespread and bloody conflict.

In spite of its initial successes, Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811. His death did not end the struggle, however.

Leadership passed to figures like José María Morelos, who continued the fight until his capture and execution in 1815. 

The Napoleonic Wars in Europe had a profound impact on Spain and its colonies. In 1808, Napoleon's invasion of Spain led to the abdication of King Ferdinand VII.

This created a power vacuum and a crisis of legitimacy in New Spain. Consequently, various factions began to struggle for control. 

The once-prosperous silver mines faced declining output due to over-extraction and labor shortages. With dwindling revenues, the colonial government struggled to maintain control and fund its operations.

Furthermore, increasing taxes and forced labor demands sparked widespread resentment among the populace.

This economic decline undermined the colonial administration's ability to govern effectively. 

The Mexican War of Independence, which began in 1810, accelerated the decline of Spanish rule. After Father Miguel Hidalgo's initial revolt, a decade of brutal warfare ensued.

In 1820, the Spanish Crown adopted a more liberal constitution, which weakened the power of the monarchy and alienated conservative elements in New Spain. 

In 1821, the conflict reached its climax with the Plan of Iguala, proposed by Agustín de Iturbide. This plan called for Mexican independence, constitutional monarchy, and equal rights for Spaniards and creoles.

With the support of key factions, Iturbide entered Mexico City triumphantly on September 27, 1821. The Treaty of Córdoba, signed shortly after, formally recognized Mexican independence from Spain.

As a result, the Viceroyalty of New Spain came to an end, and gave birth to the independent nation of Mexico.