How the Peace of Westphalia divided Europe

The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 and lasted until 1648. This better conflict involved many of the major European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and Denmark.

At its core, the war started as a religious conflict between Protestant and Catholic states within the Holy Roman Empire.

By 1620, the conflict had escalated significantly, and drew in other European powers seeking to exploit the situation for political and territorial gains. 

In 1635, the war suddenly shifted as France, a key Catholic nation, allied with Protestant states against the Habsburgs.

This cross-religious alliance changed the conflict's nature from primarily faith-based to a political one. The Habsburgs, who ruled both the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, were fighting desperately to maintain their dominance in Europe.

After this point, the war's brutality began to escalate, with mercenary armies causing widespread devastation and famine.

By 1643, all parties involved realized the need for a resolution. 

Negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia began in 1644, involving lengthy and arduous diplomatic discussions.

Representatives from all of the major European powers gathered in the Westphalian cities of Münster and Osnabrück.

This was the very first time that such a wide range of participants engaged in a diplomatic effort to end a major conflict.

Cardinal Mazarin of France and Axel Oxenstierna of Sweden became key figures in the discussions, as they sought to create a more stable and balanced political order in Europe. 

However, the process was painfully slow and frequently contentious, as each state sought to protect its own economic and territorial interests.

As well, religious differences further complicated matters. By 1646, two years later, the discussions had progressed, but significant obstacles remained.

Delegates from France, Sweden, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire debated fiercely over territorial and political issues.

The Swedish delegation, led by Johan Oxenstierna, tried to play a crucial role in mediating between the conflicting parties.

Many minor states within the Holy Roman Empire also participated. 

The two separate treaties of Münster and Osnabrück were finally signed on October 24, 1648, which officially brought an end to the Thirty Years' War.

These agreements collectively became known as the Peace of Westphalia. In the Münster deliberations, France and the Holy Roman Empire were able to negotiate terms that redrew several important territorial boundaries.

Firstly, it confirmed the independence of the Dutch Republic and recognized its sovereignty after decades of bitter conflict with Spain.

As a result of this, the Dutch had finally achieved recognition as a sovereign state, which then allowed it to focus on its burgeoning trade empire.

However, France emerged as a major beneficiary of the negotiations, as it gained control of the region of Alsace. This significantly strengthened France's eastern borders and provided a strategic advantage against the Holy Roman Empire.

Furthermore, France secured powerful new rights in Lorraine. 

In Osnabrück treaty, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire reached their own agreement. This one granted Sweden control over parts of Pomerania, Bremen, and Verden.

This increased its sphere of influence over key territories along the Baltic Sea. As a growing naval power, these gains helped Sweden prepare for future grabs at power in Europe.

Ultimately, for the Holy Roman Empire and its Emperor Ferdinand III, the territorial losses they suffered in both treaties significantly weakened their dominance in Europe.

Additionally, many of the smaller states who had previously been dominated by the Holy Roman Empire gained greater autonomy.

For example, Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate, while the Elector Palatine regained his title and part of his territories.

Consequently, the Peace of Westphalia began the slow decline of the Holy Roman Empire's influence in Europe which were to reach its climax in the time of Napoleon. 

One of the most important developments from these treaties was the ensured protection of Protestant rights within the Holy Roman Empire.

For the first time, Calvinism received the same legal status as Lutheranism and Catholicism. The treaties ultimately allowed rulers to determine the official religion of their own states, reaffirming the principle of cuius regio, eius religio.

As a result, many Protestant states also gained greater autonomy without fear of punishments from larger countries, which ultimately reduced the Holy Roman emperor's control over religious matters in their regions. 

So, the treaties promoted the modern idea of religious tolerance, which gradually came to influence all European societies.

By reducing the frequency of religious conflicts in this way, the peace agreements helped pave the way for the development of secular governments. 

Prior to the Peace of Westphalia, great empires like the Holy Roman Empire exerted considerable influence over much smaller states.

The negotiations at Westphalia saw an overturning of this system when it recognized the sovereignty of all territories, regardless of size.

Moreover, the treaties encouraged the practice of negotiating peace through diplomacy rather than warfare. This would set a precedent for almost all future conflicts.  

In addition to these changes, the Peace of Westphalia began a new development of international law. By acknowledging the need for mutual recognition and legal equality for all states, it created a set of principles norms that still guide current international relations.

Consequently, the treaties set a precedent for the modern nation-state system.