Teotihuacan: The mysterious ancient city that continues to puzzle archaeologists

Teotihuacan was one of the most impressive ancient cities in the world. It is in the Basin of Mexico, about 25 miles (40 kilometers) northeast of modern Mexico City.

This pre-Columbian city was initially settled around 400 BCE, but the most significant stages of its construction began after 100 CE.

It reached its peak between 150 and 500 CE, when it housed a population estimated between 125,000 and 200,000.

Over time, Teotihuacan developed a highly organized society that attracted migrants from surrounding regions, including the Gulf Coast, Oaxaca, and even areas as far as the Maya lowlands.

Therefore, the people who built the city were likely a mix of different Mesoamerican peoples, potentially including the Totonacs, Otomi, or Nahua groups.

Teotihuacan grew so fast and attracted so many people because it was the center of a major trade network.

The city was located next to significant mines that produced obsidian, a highly valuable volcanic black glass that was used for tools and weapons right across Mesoamerica.

In addition, it was located near fertile lands. The city’s ability to produce and control key resources gave it significant economic power in the region.

As a result, it exported vast quantities of obsidian, ceramics, textiles and foodstuffs as far as the Maya cities to the east like Tikal.

In fact, Teotihuacan's artistic and architectural styles influenced the Maya, who incorporated similar designs in their own cities.

The discovery of such shared elements in both cultures, including religious iconography, shows how far Teotihuacan’s reach extended.

The size and complexity of Teotihuacan are truly extraordinary, especially in comparison to other Mesoamerican cities.

Its urban layout was surprisingly carefully planned, featuring a grid-like system that divided the city into distinct sectors based upon the employment of those who lived there.

The most expensive region and households were owned by the nobles. However, the largest sector was occupied by craftsmen who worked with obsidian to create spear blades, knives, jewelry, and even mirrors.

The urban design indicates a high degree of central planning and suggests that the city's rulers had significant control over its development.

The central avenue that ran through the heart of the city, later named the Avenue of the Dead, was the main thoroughfare, which connected the various religious, residential, and political buildings together.

These structures were built with enormous stones, which were quarried from nearby mountains, including tezontle, a porous volcanic rock, and andesite.

Tezontle, in particular, was favored for its lightweight and workable properties.

At the southern end of the Avenue of the Dead lies the Ciudadela, a massive sunken plaza that contains the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, one of the most intricately decorated structures in Teotihuacan.

The Avenue of the Dead is flanked by imposing buildings, including the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon.

Along the east side of the Avenue was the Pyramid of the Sun: the largest building in Teotihuacan and one of the largest in Mesoamerica.

It stands at 213 feet (65 meters) tall and covers an area of about 7.5 acres.

It was constructed around 100 CE, it consists of about 1,000,000 cubic yards (765,000 cubic meters) of material, primarily tezontle, a type of volcanic rock.

Originally, it would have been adorned with stucco and murals, all of which are now lost.

At the northern end of the Avenue was the smaller but still massive Pyramid of the Moon.

It is 43 meters (140 feet) high and measures approximately 147 by 130 meters (482 by 426 feet) at its base.

It too was built in several stages between 100 and 450 CE, with significant expansions occurring between 250 and 400 CE

Its name comes from the fact that it was probably connected to lunar worship and fertility rites dedicated to the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan.

Both pyramids are aligned with astronomical events, such as the equinoxes and solstices, suggesting that the city's builders had advanced knowledge of astronomy.

Despite being one of the most significant ancient sites in the Americas, the end of Teotihuacan's history is mostly a mystery.

What seems to be that case is that the city had declined and was largely abandoned by around 750 CE.

The most likely cause of its collapse was probably due to environmental changes.

In particular, volcanic eruptions around 535 CE in nearby regions appear to have disrupted agricultural productivity, and some prolonged droughts also put significant strain on the city's food supply.

Such eruptions would have also affected trade routes which would have diminished the city's access to resources and income.

As a result, Teotihuacan began experiencing economic stress, which would have had a direct impact on the daily lives of its inhabitants.

This would have weakened the city's economic stability, which had relied heavily on its ability to sustain a large population.

As a result, the city's agricultural base could no longer support its inhabitants, leading to increasing unrest and instability.

Another strong possibility is that it was brought down by political fragmentation within Teotihuacan itself.

For whatever reason, the city’s central authority may have struggled to maintain control over its vast and diverse population, which included migrants from various regions.

Consequently, internal conflict may have arisen, with different factions competing for power.

Archaeological evidence shows that several of Teotihuacan’s grand temples and public buildings were intentionally destroyed around 550 CE.

Some historians argue that the peasants, farmers, and slaves likely rose up in revolt.

It is they that could have burned down the palaces and the religious buildings, as it seems that they left the huts of the common people alone.

Regardless, as Teotihuacan's wealth declined, so did its regional influence, which created opportunities for other Mesoamerican cities to grow in importance.

By approximately 600 CE, Teotihuacan was in a state of severe decline. Many of the city’s inhabitants likely began leaving, and its role as a dominant political and economic center diminished.

The city’s final abandonment occurred around 750 CE, though some smaller settlements may have persisted in the area.

Ultimately, however, the lack of written records means that we may never know the details behind the fall of Teotihuacan.

When the Aztecs arrived in the Basin of Mexico in the early 14th century, they encountered the ruins of Teotihuacan, which had been abandoned for about six centuries.

The Aztecs, who came from the north as a nomadic people, were struck by the grandeur of the city's remnants.

They believed Teotihuacan had been a place of great spiritual significance. The name they gave to the city, 'Teotihuacan', means "the place where the gods were born".

This belief was central to the Aztecs’ mythology and their understanding of the world, influencing how they viewed the site.

By 1325, the Aztecs had begun settling in the Basin of Mexico and established their capital, Tenochtitlan, on an island in Lake Texcoco.

Although Teotihuacan was already in ruins, its impressive structures, such as the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, continued to hold cultural importance.

The Aztecs incorporated these structures into their own religious practices, viewing the city as a sacred place where they could connect with their gods.

The Aztecs did not attempt to rebuild Teotihuacan or make it a part of their empire. Instead, they used the site for ceremonial purposes.

In particular, they conducted pilgrimages to the ancient city and made offerings to the gods they believed had once inhabited the area.

This practice demonstrated the deep respect the Aztecs held for what they saw as the birthplace of divine powers.

To explain the existence of this ancient city, the Aztecs shared the story of Nanahuatzin and how the Fifth Sun was created.

In this tale, the Aztec gods gathered in Teotihuacan to discuss how they would bring light to the world after the previous sun had disappeared.

They decided that one of them needed to sacrifice himself by throwing themselves into a great fire to become the new sun.

Two gods were chosen for this important task: Tecuciztecatl, who was wealthy and proud, and Nanahuatzin, who was humble and afflicted with sores.

Tecuciztecatl, who was eager to take the honor, approached the fire first and attempted to leap into the flames several times.

However, he hesitated each time out of fear. The other gods watched in frustration as Tecuciztecatl repeatedly failed to make the sacrifice.

Meanwhile, Nanahuatzin, who had been quiet and patient, bravely stepped forward at midnight.

Without hesitation, he threw himself into the fire and was consumed by the flames.

His courage and selflessness impressed the other gods, who recognized his worth.

After Nanahuatzin’s sacrifice, Tecuciztecatl finally gathered the courage to jump into the fire as well.

However, because he hesitated while Nanahuatzin did not, the gods decreed that Nanahuatzin would become the main sun, while Tecuciztecatl would become a lesser moon.

The gods also realized that the new sun, Nanahuatzin, who now shone brightly in the sky, was motionless.

To give him the strength to move across the heavens, the other gods sacrificed themselves, which set the sun in motion.

By the time the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, Teotihuacan remained a symbol of great spiritual importance to the Aztec Empire.

Spanish chroniclers, including Bernardino de Sahagún, upon hearing the Aztecs' stories about the ancient city, were equally impressed by the ruins.

The first major excavations of Teotihuacan began in the late 19th century. In 1884, Mexican archaeologist Leopoldo Batres conducted one of the earliest excavations at Teotihuacan.

He focused primarily on the Pyramid of the Sun, which was partially buried under debris.

Batres aimed to restore the pyramid, but his methods were rudimentary by modern standards, which led to some controversy over the accuracy of his work.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Mexican archaeologist Manuel Gamio led a comprehensive project to study the site.

His work was significant in uncovering much of the urban layout of Teotihuacan, including residential areas and temples.

One of the most important discoveries came in 1962, when researchers found a series of murals that depicted elaborate religious scenes.

This led to, in the 1960s, René Millon and the Teotihuacan Mapping Project, which produced the most comprehensive map of the city.

Then, in 1971, archaeologist Ernesto Taboada discovered an entrance to a seven-meter-deep pit at the foot of the main staircase of the Pyramid of the Sun.

This led to the discovery of a 103-meter-long tunnel beneath the pyramid, which was originally a natural cave formed by lava flow and later reinforced by the Teotihuacanos with mud and basalt slabs.

The tunnel is believed to have been a sacred space, potentially serving as a pilgrimage destination or shrine.

In 2003, archaeologists discovered a hidden tunnel beneath the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, which was believed to be a ceremonial passageway leading to the underworld, since its walls sparkled with pyrite, creating a cosmic effect.

It is approximately 100 meters long, and was filled with over 50,000 offerings, including seashells, jaguar bones, pottery, and human skin fragments.

Eerily, it also contained a mass grave of over 200 human sacrifices, who were likely soldiers or prisoners, buried with elaborate jewelry and weapons.

Despite the many mysteries surrounding Teotihuacan, the city remains one of the most important archaeological sites in the world.

Specifically, the lack of written records from the civilization has left many unanswered questions, which has fueled ongoing research and curiosity.

Scholars continue to debate the city's origins, its role in Mesoamerica, and the reasons for its decline.

This unknown history adds an element of intrigue for those who visit or study the site.

The enigmatic murals, hidden tunnels, and artifacts discovered in recent years only adds to the fascination.

In addition to its historical significance, the physical beauty of Teotihuacan’s ruins continues to draw people from around the world.

The site’s layout, with its wide boulevards, monumental pyramids, and intricate carvings, creates a striking visual experience.

Visitors can explore the ancient city while reflecting on its past, which gives a powerful sense of connection to the people who once lived there.