Who were the major European powers before the outbreak of WWI?

Great Britain held the dominant position in the early 20th century and ruled over an empire that spanned nearly a quarter of the globe.

It controlled territories across Africa, Asia, and the Americas. India, the "jewel in the crown", provided significant levels of wealth.

Britain's economy thrived on industrial might, since it was producing over 23% of the world's manufacturing output by 1913.

The economy relied heavily on global trade, with exports reaching £634 million in 1913. Consequently, the Suez Canal in Egypt was a vital channel for British international shipping throughout its empire. 

The British navy was proud of its vast fleet of new dreadnought battleships, believing that they had uncontested control of crucial sea routes. In 1910, the Royal Navy boasted 62 battleships: more than any other country. 

In the decades before WWI, Great Britain focused on its navy as its main chance of winning any future conflict. This meant that it had less emphasis on a large standing army.

By 1914, the British Expeditionary Force numbered only around 100,000 men, which was only a fraction of Germany's millions.

However, the nation's strategic doctrines believed that it could use its larger navy to rapidly deploy their armed forces around the world when and where they were needed. 

In the late 19th century, France had emerged from the Franco-Prussian War of 1894 seeking revenge and restoration of its international prestige.

Its economy, the fourth largest in the world, produced 6% of global manufacturing output by 1913. Industrial regions like Lorraine contributed significantly to this growth.

By 1914, France had established a strong colonial empire as well, and controlled vast territories in Africa and Southeast Asia. Algeria, Indochina, and Morocco in particularly provided vital resources. 

To better strengthen its military for the next war, France implemented the Three-Year Law in 1913. This had extended mandatory military service for French men to three years.

This policy successfully increased the French army's size to around 700,000 men. Additionally, France developed a robust railway network, which was thought to enable rapid troop movements across their country.

With Germany as the obvious looming threat, France increased its armed forces near its eastern border. This aimed to deter German aggression. 

Despite its military and diplomatic efforts, France faced a number of difficult internal challenges. Social tensions arose from the rapid industrialization and urbanization of the 19th century.

An increasing number of workers strikes, and political protests had been a constant thorn in the government’s side. In 1910 alone, over 1,300 strikes occurred, involving 400,000 workers.

The government, often unstable, experienced frequent changes, with almost a dozen different administrations between 1788 and 1914. 

France's military strategy focused on rapid offense, based upon the doctrine of élan vital, or ‘fighting spirit’. This approach aimed to counter German tactics and reclaim lost territories, particularly Alsace-Lorraine.

The French army invested in artillery, possessing 4,000 field guns by 1914. Nevertheless, French military leaders were criticized for their rigid tactics. 

Germany had only been unified in 1871 under Prussian leadership, which had rapidly transformed it into a formidable European power.

Its economy was fueled by industrial growth and became the second largest in the world: producing 14% of global manufacturing output by 1913.

In particular, major cities like Berlin and Hamburg flourished as industrial hubs. Moreover, Germany's coal and steel production outpaced that of Britain, with coal output reaching 277 million tons in 1913. 

Under Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany pursued an ambitious foreign policy known as Weltpolitik, which had a dedicated aim to expand its influence and acquire new colonies.

By 1914, Germany had taken territories in Africa, the Pacific, and China. However, its aggressive stance created tensions with other European powers. A major arms race began with Great Britain.

This was because Germany sought to challenge British naval supremacy. By 1914, Germany had built 29 battleships and 17 cruisers, and was well on the way to becoming a serious maritime power. 

In addition, Germany's military strategy focused on rapid mobilization and decisive action, most famously encapsulated in the Schlieffen Plan.

This plan aimed to avoid a two-front war by quickly defeating France before turning east to face Russia. With this in mind, Germany invested heavily in its army, which numbered 4.5 million men by 1914.

The German army also possessed advanced artillery, including the powerful Krupp cannons. 

German cities were expanding and were experiencing significant social changes. Berlin's population reached over 2 million by 1910, which led to housing shortages and labor unrest.

In 1912, over 1.5 million workers participated in strikes as they demanded better wages and working conditions.

However, innovations in chemistry, engineering, and physics positioned Germany at the forefront of global technological progress.

For instance, Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed the Haber-Bosch process, revolutionizing chemical production.

Additionally, German universities and research institutions attracted scholars and scientists from around the world. 

Austria-Hungary was a dual monarchy that was established in 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which had created the dual monarchy, led to separate parliaments and administrations for Austria and Hungary.

This arrangement often resulted in political gridlock, as the two halves struggled to agree on common policies. It was a large empire but was struggling with critical ethnic challenges by the early 20th century.

Its population of over 50 million people included diverse people groups such as Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, and Croats, among others.

These groups often clashed over political and cultural rights, which created a volatile domestic situation.  

Vienna and Budapest served as the dual capitals, based upon the distinct but connected entities of Austria and Hungary.

The Austro-Hungarian economy, while growing, lagged behind that of Germany and Great Britain. In 1913, industrial output only accounted for about 4% of global manufacturing.

Moreover, the empire's economy was a mixture of industrialized regions and agrarian areas, leading to uneven development.

The empire's reliance on agriculture in Hungary contrasted with the industrial focus of Austrian regions like Bohemia.

Austria-Hungary's foreign policy aimed to maintain its influence in the Balkans: a region rife with ongoing nationalist movements.

Specifically, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 heightened tensions with other powers. 

This aggressive move strained relations with Russia in particular, which supported Slavic nations in the Balkans.

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 further destabilized the region. 

With a military force numbering around 800,000 men by 1914, Austria-Hungary was a respected power. However, its military organization suffered from inefficiencies and outdated practices.

The empire's complex bureaucracy hindered effective coordination between the Austrian and Hungarian halves.

Furthermore, the diverse linguistic composition of its troops complicated command and control, which constantly undermined its overall battlefield effectiveness.

The largest land empire at the time was Russia, which was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. He ruled over a population exceeding 160 million, but the country struggled to modernize its economy and infrastructure.

Agricultural practices remained largely outdated, and many peasants lived in severe poverty. In contrast, industrial centers like St Petersburg and Moscow saw fast-paced population and economic growth, with industrial output contributing 5% to the global total by 1913. 

The Russian military, one of the largest in Europe, consisted of approximately 1.4 million active soldiers by 1914.

However, it openly suffered from inefficiency and poor logistics. In addition, the military's equipment and tactics lagged behind those of its major Western counterparts like Germany and France.

To address these issues, the government-initiated reforms and increased military spending, yet progress remained slow.

Moreover, the embarrassing defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 exposed the weaknesses of the Russian armed forces. 

Russia’s major strength at the time was it vast natural resources, which meant that it had significant economic potential.

The Trans-Siberian Railway, which was completed in 1916, connected the European part of Russia with the Pacific coast for the first time. It was designed to facilitate trade and movement across the empire.

However, political instability hampered economic development. The dramatic 1905 Revolution had been triggered by social and economic discontent, which had forced the Tsar to grant limited reforms, including the creation of the Duma, a legislative body.

However, the Tsar retained significant autocratic power. This fact led to continued unrest and dissatisfaction among various social groups.

Internally, Russia also faced numerous social and ethnic tensions. The empire included diverse ethnic groups such as Ukrainians, Poles, Finns, and numerous others, each with their distinct identities and aspirations.

Each of these nationalist movements sought greater autonomy or independence and challenged the central authority. 

Similarly to Germany, Italy had only recently unified in 1861. At the start of the 20th century, it was considered a young and ambitious nation striving to establish itself as a major European power.

With a population of 36 million by 1914, the industrial north contrasted sharply with the agrarian south, which highlighted clear economic disparities.

To address these issues, the government had actively invested in modern infrastructure, including railways and ports, to help stimulate economic growth. 

Milan and Turin were key industrial centers. By 1913, Italy produced about 1% of the world's manufacturing output. However, the nation's focus was on textiles, machinery, and steel.

It was hoped that advancements in these industries would help it to catch up with its European neighbors. To bolster its international standing, Italy sought to expand its colonial empire.

In 1911, Italy seized control of Libya from the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, this move strained relations with other European powers, particularly France and Britain, who also had interests in North Africa. 

The Italian military numbered around 300,000 men by 1914, but it was actively modernizing its capabilities. This was due to the government increasing military spending, with a focus on improving the army's equipment and training.

In addition, Italy's navy grew, with new battleships enhancing its presence in the Mediterranean. Just like other European countries at the time, Italy grappled with social unrest.

Labor strikes and protests became common as workers demanded better wages and conditions. In 1912, over 400,000 workers participated in widespread strikes.

The government responded with a mix of repression and reform.